From: Subject: A Dark Force in the Universe: Science News Online, April 7, 2001 Date: Mon, 16 Jun 2003 00:21:28 -0400 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0009_01C3339D.3ABDB8A0"; type="text/html" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2800.1106 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0009_01C3339D.3ABDB8A0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.sciencenews.org/20010407/bob14.asp A Dark Force in the Universe: Science News Online, = April 7, 2001
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Week=20 of April 7, 2001; Vol. 159, No.=20 14

A Dark Force in the Universe

Scientists try to determine what's revving = up the=20 cosmos

Ron Cowen

Three years ago, observations of distant, = exploding=20 stars blew to smithereens some of astronomers' = most=20 cherished ideas about the universe. To piece = together an=20 updated theory, they're now thinking dark = thoughts about=20 what sort of mystery force may be contorting the = cosmos.=20

Observations of distant = supernova, including 1997ff, suggest that = over the=20 past few billion years, a mysterious = substance=20 called dark energy has caused gravity, at = its=20 largest scale, to become repulsive. When = the=20 universe was smaller and the density of = matter=20 therefore higher, dark energy would have = had a=20 negligible effect. Gravity would have = exerted its=20 familiar universal attraction, slowing = cosmic=20 expansion.
Z.=20 Levay/Space Telescope Science=20 = Institute

According to the standard view of cosmology, = the once=20 infinitesimal universe has ballooned in volume = ever=20 since its fiery birth in the Big Bang, but the = mutual=20 gravitational tug of all the matter in the = cosmos has=20 gradually slowed that expansion.=20

In 1998, however, scientists reported that a = group of=20 distant supernovas were dimmer, and therefore = farther=20 from Earth, than the standard theory indicated. = It was=20 as if, in the billion or so years it took for = the light=20 from these exploded stars to arrive at Earth, = the space=20 between the stars and our planet had stretched = out more=20 than expected. That would mean that cosmic = expansion has=20 somehow sped up, not slowed down. Recent = evidence has=20 only firmed up that bizarre result (SN: 3/31/01, = p.=20 196).=20

In 1929, Edwin P. Hubble discovered that = distant=20 galaxies are fleeing from one another as if the = entire=20 universe is swelling in size. Ever since, = astronomers=20 have been hoping to answer a key question: Will = the=20 expansion of the universe, slowed by gravity, go = on=20 forever, or will the cosmos eventually collapse = into a=20 Big Crunch?=20

Despite decades of effort and countless = studies=20 devoted to the ballooning of the universe, the = recent=20 findings stunned astronomers. Few suspected that = all=20 along they were asking the wrong question.=20

"For 70 years, we've been trying to measure = the rate=20 at which the universe slows down. We finally do = it, and=20 we find out it's speeding up," says Michael S. = Turner of=20 the University of Chicago.=20

An accelerated expansion would seem to = contradict all=20 common sense, says Andreas J. Albrecht of the = University=20 of California, Davis. Throw a ball into the sky, = and=20 after it reaches a certain height, it will come = back=20 down, he notes. Now imagine throwing another = ball upward=20 and finding that instead of it falling back = down, it=20 somehow keeps moving up faster and faster. For = that to=20 happen, there would have to be some force = pushing upward=20 on the ball strongly enough to overcome = gravity's=20 downward tug.=20

Astronomers have come to believe that just = such a=20 force is stretching the very fabric of space.=20

What is this mystery force?=20

Cosmologists have proposed that it derives = from dark=20 energy=97a substance whose properties and origin = scientists have only begun to explore. At stake = is more=20 than just a better understanding of the fate of = the=20 universe: The very presence of dark energy may = enable=20 scientists to explain the fundamental forces of = the=20 universe and tease out the hidden connections = among=20 them.=20

Says Albrecht: "This is the most exciting = endeavor=20 going on in physics right now."=20

Dark matter=20

Astronomers have dark imaginations. They're = already=20 obsessed with another phenomenon that they call = dark=20 matter, which is entirely separate from dark = energy.=20 Dark matter is the invisible material that = theorists say=20 makes up 95 percent of the mass of the universe. = It=20 gathers into vast clumps and exerts an ordinary=20 gravitational tug on its surroundings. The = proposed dark=20 energy, in contrast, would inhabit empty space = and would=20 be evenly distributed throughout the universe.=20

Moreover, dark energy would exert a repulsive = force=97what might be called antigravity. More = accurately,=20 dark energy would be the flip side of ordinary = gravity=20 because it would possess a strange property = called=20 negative pressure. Something with negative = pressure=20 resists being stretched, as a coiled spring = does: Pull=20 on the spring and it pulls back.=20

To understand what pressure=97negative or = positive=97has=20 to do with gravity, take a look at Einstein's = general=20 theory of relativity. According to that theory, = matter=20 isn't the only source of gravity. There are two = other=20 sources: energy, which is interchangeable with = mass=20 according to Einstein's famous equation E =3D = mc2, and pressure. =

A familiar example of pressure is an inflated = balloon. In this everyday experience, pressure = within=20 the balloon has a negligible effect on its = gravity. At=20 physical extremes, however, pressure can = dominate. When=20 that occurs, some strange things can happen, = such as the=20 formation of black holes.=20

Pressure prevents a star as massive as the = sun from=20 imploding under its own gravity. That's because = the=20 radiation emitted by the star exerts a gaslike = pressure=20 outward.=20

Stars more massive than the sun must exert an = even=20 stronger pressure to counterbalance their = gravity. For a=20 star greater than about four times the sun's = mass, the=20 counterbalancing pressure becomes as strong as = the=20 density of the star. When this happens, pressure = contributes as much as mass does to the = gravitational=20 force, Einstein's theory says. In effect, the=20 gravitational pull inward drastically increases. =

The more the star contracts, the greater its = pressure=20 and density, and thus the stronger the gravity. = Unable=20 to resist, the star undergoes a runaway = collapse, and=20 its gravity becoming so strong that not even = light can=20 escape its grasp. A black hole is born.=20

The contribution of pressure is "an aspect of = gravity=20 that was there all along," notes Turner. He says = that=20 anyone who accepts the reality of black holes = has=20 implicitly accepted the notion that pressure can = be a=20 key source of gravity.=20

According to Einstein's theory, pressure has = another=20 mind-bending property: It can be negative. An = object=20 having negative pressure resists being = stretched. "Think=20 of negative pressure as silly putty or a rubber = sheet.=20 The atoms don't want to be drawn apart; there's = a force=20 that pulls them together," says Turner. Negative = pressure, he notes, would impart a springiness = or=20 elasticity to space.=20

It's counterintuitive to think that a = material such=20 as rubber, which draws itself inward when = stretched,=20 could push objects outward. Yet if dark energy's = antigravity effect=97it's ability to exert = negative=20 pressure=97were strong enough, it could swing = the gravity=20 meter from the plus side to the minus side, = Einstein's=20 theory dictates.=20

Gravity normally pulls matter together. = Instead of=20 pulling, dark energy would cause gravity to = push.=20 Instead of tugging and slowing the expansion of = the=20 universe, dark energy would rev it up.=20

As bizarre as dark energy may seem, it's the = only=20 theory to explain the accelerating cosmos that = is=20 compatible with Einstein's general theory of = relativity,=20 says Turner.=20

Dark energy=20

In its simplest version, dark energy would be = a true=20 constant, equally distributed throughout the = universe=20 and continuously exerting the same amount of = force as=20 the universe expands. In 1917, Einstein posited = a=20 version of this energy, which he called the = cosmological=20 constant. Physicists have sporadically been = returning to=20 that idea ever since. Because the cosmological = constant=20 would exist even in the absence of matter or = radiation,=20 its origins might lie within empty space itself. =

This property could tie dark energy to one of = the=20 stranger properties of quantum mechanics. = Quantum theory=20 dictates that empty space=97what physicists call = the=20 vacuum=97seethes with energy as pairs of = particles and=20 antiparticles pop in and out of existence.=20

This vacuum energy has some subtle but = measurable=20 effects. For example, it shifts the energy = levels of=20 atoms slightly and exerts a force between = closely spaced=20 metal plates (SN: 2/10/01, p. 86). In 1967, the = Russian=20 astrophysicist Yakov B. Zeldovich showed that = vacuum=20 energy has an intriguing property. The energy = associated=20 with this nothingness has negative pressure.=20

That means vacuum energy could push galaxies = apart at=20 ever-increasing speeds, making it an ideal = candidate for=20 being the dark energy.=20

Alas, there appears to be a huge problem.=20 Calculations reveal that the energy stored in = the vacuum=20 is 120 orders of magnitude larger than the dark = energy=20 that cosmologists are positing.=20

"If the vacuum energy density really is so = enormous,=20 it would cause an exponentially rapid expansion = of the=20 universe that would rip apart all the = electrostatic and=20 nuclear bonds that hold atoms and molecules = together,"=20 note Paul J. Steinhardt of the University of=20 Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and Robert R. = Caldwell of=20 Dartmouth College in Hanover, N.H., in a recent = review=20 article. "There would be no galaxies, stars, or = life."=20

It's likely, physicists admit, that they = don't really=20 know how to calculate vacuum energy. That = complication=20 may have to do with their limited knowledge = about the=20 nature of gravity. Einstein's theory holds that = gravity=20 curves empty space=97the vacuum=97but scientists = don't yet=20 know how gravity does so on a quantum mechanical = scale.=20

Thus, scientists have yet to unify quantum = theory=20 with gravity. Some hold out the hope that when = they do,=20 they'll miraculously find that the 120 orders of = magnitude drop to zero=97almost. There might be = just=20 enough vacuum energy left over to account for = the amount=20 harbored by dark energy.=20

Many researchers think that's a forlorn hope, = however. They believe that a better = understanding of the=20 vacuum energy will reveal it to be exactly zero. =

In that case, dark energy would have to be = something=20 else. Several theorists believe this something = else=20 blankets the universe and varies with time and = place.=20 Steinhardt, his University of Pennsylvania = colleague=20 Rahul Dave, and their collaborators call this = variable=20 form of dark energy "quintessence."=20

Quintessence takes on a different form and = strength=20 depending on what time it is in the universe. = Scientists=20 have established that just after the Big Bang,=20 high-energy radiation filled the universe and = was the=20 dominant form of energy. Matter contributed very = little=20 to the cosmic-energy budget. In that era, = quintessence=20 would have mimicked the properties of radiation, = Steinhardt says. Like radiation, it would have = exerted=20 positive pressure.=20

As the universe cooled and particles slowed, = the=20 energy balance shifted in favor of matter. = Material=20 started to clump together to form larger = structures.=20 Steinhardt proposes that at the onset of that = era, some=20 50,000 years after the Big Bang, quintessence = changed.=20 As he and his colleagues see it, = quintessence=97dark=20 energy=97settled down to a fixed value and began = exerting=20 a negative pressure throughout the cosmos.=20

In this vision, the dark-energy density = initially=20 paled in comparison with the density of matter. = Gravity=20 thus acted in its familiar fashion, slowing the=20 expansion of the universe. But as the volume of = the=20 universe continued to expand, its matter density = decreased. As matter density dwindled, the = energy=20 density associated with quintessence remained=20 constant=97or nearly so. Consequently, = quintessence became=20 gravity's new boss. The expansion of the cosmos = would=20 then have gone into overdrive.=20

It's no coincidence that humans are living at = a time=20 when it's possible to observe cosmic = acceleration, says=20 Steinhardt. The same shift in the mass-energy = balance=20 that gave rise to stars, galaxies, planets, and = life=20 also transformed quintessence into a cosmic = accelerator.=20

Steinhardt admits he hasn't come up with any=20 fundamental explanation of why the quintessence = field=20 would change in this way. The answer, he says, = could lie=20 in new physics, perhaps in a new elementary = particle=20 implied by quintessence. The explanation could = also=20 provide a hint about how physicists might tackle = one of=20 their thorniest and most intriguing=20 challenges=97explaining the existence of the = fundamental=20 forces and how they intertwine. Quintessence, or = dark=20 energy, could be a linchpin that holds together = both old=20 and new physics.=20

In a version of quintessence proposed by = Albrecht and=20 his University of California, Davis colleague=20 Constantinos Skordis, the repulsive force may = come from=20 other, unseen dimensions or even from other = universes=20 beyond our own. That dovetails with a theory = from=20 elementary particle physics, which posits that = our three=20 dimensions plus time are but a tiny part of a = much=20 broader, multidimensional canvas.=20

The extra dimensions wouldn't have a direct = influence=20 on our own four-dimensional space-time. But = because=20 gravity exerts itself by distorting space, the=20 gravitational field associated with the extra = dimensions=20 might affect our own. Albrecht suggests that = gravity's=20 ability to repel as well as attract could stem = from the=20 existence of those other dimensions. Those = dimensions in=20 turn could provide additional hints about = another deep=20 puzzle of physics=97the quantum nature of = gravity, he=20 notes.=20

Albrecht says his theory offers another = advantage. It=20 describes quintessence by using only simple = constants of=20 nature, such as the speed of light, the = gravitational=20 constant, and Planck's constant of quantum = mechanics.=20 The quintessence field that he and Skordis = construct=20 from these constants could indeed have become = dominant=20 long after the Big Bang, prompting the current = phase of=20 accelerated expansion.=20

Albrecht acknowledges the ad hoc nature of=20 quintessence theories, which are still in their = infancy.=20 "We each have our own angles," he notes. "They = all have=20 a lot of weaknesses."=20

Cosmic expansion=20

Several studies now in the works may enable=20 astronomers to confirm whether or not cosmic = expansion=20 is accelerating. Moreover, the studies could = also reveal=20 which of the two proposed forms of dark=20 energy=97quintessence or vacuum energy=97is = driving that=20 acceleration. Astronomers think they can = distinguish the=20 two types of dark energy because quintessence = would give=20 the universe a smaller push.=20

"Dark energy" as = envisioned by=20 Pok=E9mon.
(c)=20 Wizards of = America

If vacuum energy really is the dark energy, = then the=20 universe will expand forever at an accelerating = rate.=20

If quintessence proves correct, then the = amount by=20 which space has stretched over the past few = billion=20 years is less than if dark energy is the vacuum = energy.=20 Because the volume of the cosmos is smaller in a = quintessential universe, supernovas up to a few = billion=20 light-years from Earth would appear somewhat = brighter=20 and fewer galaxies would exist within a given = span of=20 cosmic time. Under the quintessence theory, the = dark=20 energy varies in time and space, so determining = the fate=20 of the cosmos isn't so straightforward.=20

Indeed, dark energy might even be a fleeting=20 phenomenon that gives the universe an extra kick = for=20 several billion years and then disappears. In = that case,=20 it could resemble an extended replay of = inflation=97the=20 brief, mysterious epoch of hyperexpansion that = is=20 thought to have occurred during the earliest = moments of=20 the universe (SN: 12/19 & 26/98, p. 392).=20

Dark energy "is involved in very fundamental = issues,"=20 says Turner. "This could be a key to = understanding the=20 forces of nature, including the quantum theory = of=20 gravity."=20

Strange as dark energy seems, Turner notes, = "I=20 guarantee you it's not going away."

References:

Albrecht, A., and C. = Skordis. In=20 press. Phenomenology of a realistic accelerating = universe using only Planck-scale physics. = Physical=20 Review Letters. Available at http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs= /astro-ph/9908085.

Huterer, D., and M.S. = Turner.=20 Preprint. Probing the dark energy: Methods and=20 strategies. Available at http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs= /astro-ph/0012510.

Further Readings:

Cowen, R. 2001. Starry data = support=20 revved-up cosmos. Science News 159(March = 31):196.=20

______. 1998. The greatest = story ever=20 told. Science News 154(Dec. = 19&26):392.=20 Available at http://www= .sciencenews.org/sn_arc98/12_19_98/Bob1.htm.

Weiss, P. 2001. Force from = empty=20 space drives a machine. Science News = 159(Feb.=20 10):86.

Sources:

Andreas = Albrecht
Department of=20 Physics
University of California, = Davis
One=20 Shields Avenue
Davis, CA 95616

Robert R. = Caldwell
Department of=20 Physics and Astronomy
Dartmouth = College
6127=20 Wilder Laboratory
Hanover, NH 03755-3528

Paul J. = Steinhardt
Department of=20 Physics and Astronomy
University of=20 Pennsylvania
209 South 33rd = Street
Philadelphia,=20 PA 19104-6396

Michael S. = Turner
Department of=20 Astronomy and Astrophysics
University of=20 Chicago
Chicago, IL 60637-1433 =

From Science = News, Vol.=20 159, No. 14, April 7, 2001, = p.=20 = 218.

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