Misc. Talk -- Design in the Universe

From: Subject: =?iso-8859-1?Q?Misc._Talk_--_?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?Design_in_the_?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?Universe?= Date: Mon, 16 Jun 2003 20:57:34 -0400 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_00C4_01C33449.E90A2900"; type="text/html" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V5.00.3314.1001 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_00C4_01C33449.E90A2900 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: =?iso-8859-1?B?aHR0cDovL3d3dy1wZXI=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?c29uYWwudW1pY2guZWQ=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?dS9+cGVwL21pc2NfZGU=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?c2lnbl91bml2ZXJzZS4=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?aHRtbA==?= Misc. Talk -- Design in the Universe

Design in the Universe?
Intelligent Christianity #101
Sept. 20, = 1999

The psalmist proclaims, "The heavens declare the glory of God; the = skies=20 proclaim the work of his hands." (Psalm 19:1) From ancient times to the = present,=20 people have looked at the natural world, have marveled at it, and have = seen in=20 it the handiwork of God. And from the time of the ancient Greeks onward, = the=20 evident order of the natural world has been the basis for an argument to = the=20 existence of God, an argument known as the "argument from design".

The most common form of this argument in the past has been one that = starts=20 with biological structures such as the hand or the human eye and asks = how such=20 extraordinary structures, both in complexity and in function, could have = arisen=20 by chance. However, with Charles Darwin and the advent of evolutionary = theory=20 there arose a possible way of accounting for the emergence of such = structures, a=20 way which makes no appeal to intentional design, relying only on the = blind=20 processes of random mutation and natural selection. That change does = take place=20 in this way is now quite evident, and evolutionary theory has become an=20 important part of a contemporary understanding of biology. This, = however, does=20 not entail the conclusion that blind (unguided) physical processes can = alone be=20 adequate to account for either the emergence or the development of life. = If one=20 assumes that God does not exist (and if one discounts all forms of = animism and=20 polytheism), then one is left with nothing but blind physical processes, = and,=20 given that we are here, it becomes a foregone conclusion that such = processes=20 must have been adequate.

It may come as a surprise to many that there are indeed good reasons = for=20 doubting the sufficiency of such processes,¹=20 but this talk will not deal with that question. Rather it will address = the=20 question as to whether the content of the laws of physics themselves = constitute=20 evidence for a designer. The issue here can be formulated as a question. = Do=20 the laws of physics themselves manifest an apparent fine tuning without = which=20 life would not be possible? At present, this question must be = formulated in=20 terms of what are called "basic physical constants," such things are the = strengths of the four basic forces (electromagnetism, the weak and = strong=20 nuclear forces, and gravity), the mass and spin of various fundamental=20 particles, and the speed of light. The question, therefore, is, had the = physical=20 constants been slightly different from what they are, would anything = like life=20 have been possible? Obviously if those constants had been different, we = would=20 not be here, but the issue is whether anything like life would have been = possible.

The surprising answer to that question is that the laws of physics = do=20 seem fine-tuned for the possibility of life. Put another way, there = exists=20 amongst the basic physical constants a delicate balance without which = nothing=20 like life would have been possible. This is not just the conclusion of = theists,=20 of those who would be delighted to find that this is the case; it is a=20 conclusion shared by most atheists who have wrestled with the question. = See, for=20 instance a recent book by the astrophysicist Martin Rees, Before the=20 Beginning: Our Universe and Others.²=20 He is by no means a theist but is convinced that the apparent delicate = balance=20 of natural law is real.

Does granting that there is an apparent fine tuning of natural law=20 necessitate that one believe there is a cosmic designer? No, it does = not. The=20 most common response amongst atheists is to speculate that there are a = vast=20 number of universes amongst which the basic physical constants vary vary = in a=20 random or indeterministic way. The claim then is that the fine tuning = which we=20 observe simply reflects the truism that intelligent life can only exist = where=20 such fine tuning exists. I will say more about this explanation in the = next talk=20 and also address courrent speculation as to what brought about the = origin of the=20 universe, but the aim of this talk is to advance the thesis that the = laws of=20 physics do indeed exhibit an extraordinary fine tuning, a fine tuning = which=20 makes life possible. Astrophysicist Paul Davies has expressed it as = follows:

As more and more physical systems, from nuclei to = galaxies have=20 become better understood, scientists have begun to realize that many=20 characteristics of these systems are remarkably sensitive to the precise = values=20 of fundamental constants. Had nature opted for a slightly different set = of=20 numbers, the world would be a very different place. Probably we would = not be=20 here to see it.=20

More intriguing still, certain crucial structures, = such as=20 solar-type stars, depend for their characteristic features on wildly = improbable=20 numerical accidents that combine together fundamental constants from = distinct=20 branches of physics. And when one goes on to the study of cosmology"the = overall=20 structure and evolution of the universe"incredulity mounts. Recent = discoveries=20 about the primeval cosmos oblige us to accept that the expanding = universe has=20 been set up in its motion with a cooperation of astounding precision. = . .=20 .³=20

I will give two examples of the evidence in question. A number of = others=20 could be given.

1. THE WEAK NUCLEAR FORCE AND SUPERNOVAE

According to the big bang theory, the only elements to form in the = primordial=20 heat of the big bang were hydrogen and helium (with very small traces of = lithium=20 and berylium). Life requires complex structure and hydrogen and helium = do not=20 provide a basis for such complexity of structure.⁴=20 Hence the eventual appearance of life required first the emergence of = the=20 heavier elements. These, are formed in the center of stars through = nuclear=20 fusion. Most of the "life" of a star consists of that long period in = which=20 hydrogen is fused into helium. Eventually enough of the helium gets used = up that=20 the heat generated thereby is unable to counter the gravitational = attraction of=20 the stars mass and the star begins to shrink in volume. Such compaction = itself=20 generates more heat, that heat rising until temperatures are achieved at = which=20 the helium can fuse into heavier elements. As reserves of helium deplete = further=20 contraction occurs enabling the formation of successively heavier = elements.

However, for these heavier elements to become the basis for life they = need to=20 be released from the center of the stars in which they form. For stars = the size=20 of our sun, these heavier elements never escape from the star. Such = stars=20 eventually use up their nuclear fuel and collapse into highly dense = stars known=20 as white dwarfs, stars which gradually cool as would a cinder turning = cold. The=20 heavier elements within such stars are trapped. If stars are large = enough the=20 gravitation force will result in a black hole. That heavier elements can = get=20 released from stars is due to what are known as supernovae, a = catastrophic=20 implosion of a stars which in turn triggers a spectacular explosion from = the=20 heat generated by the implosion. The inner portion of the star collapses = into=20 what becomes a neutron star and the outer portion is blown away by the = massive=20 energy generated.
It is with regard to supernovae that a "fine = tuning" of=20 the weak force becomes relevant
The favored explanation as to what = makes the=20 explosion is that the imploding core of the stars produces an enormous = number of=20 neutrinos. These are massless, or nearly so, and interact very little = with=20 ordinary matter-they can easily pass through the Earth without touching = it.=20 However, the densities of the imploding core are so great that the = neutrinos=20 exert sufficient pressure to blow away the outer portion of the star. = The weak=20 force is crucial for it is through weak interactions precipitated by the = implosion that the neutrinos are formed. Calculations show that "If the = weak=20 interaction were much weaker, the neutrinos would not be able to exert = enough=20 pressure on the outer envelope of the star to cause the supernova = explosion. On=20 the other hand, if it were much stronger, the neutrinos would be trapped = inside=20 the core, and rendered impotent."⁵=20 With regard to a weaker weak force, Leslie, citing Rees as a source, = says,=20 "While calculations are hard, it seems a safe bet that weakening the = weak force=20 by a factor of ten would have led to a universe consisting mainly of = helium and=20 in which the life-producing explosions could not occur."⁶=20 Thus life depends on the weak nuclear force falling within this range.⁷

2. HELIUM, BERYLLIUM AND CARBON RESONANCES

All forms of life with which we are familiar are carbon-based. Need = it be so?=20 Some have speculated that silicon might be a possible alternative. = Silicon is=20 located in the same column of the periodic table as carbon and in the = row below=20 it. Both have a valence of four, meaning that they each have four = electrons=20 available to enter into chemical bonds. Nonetheless, silicon has serious = disadvantages. Carbon can form double bonds with other elements, i.e. = share two=20 electrons with another atom; silicon forms only single bonds. Thus = carbon=20 dioxide is a stable and exists as a gas"enabling it, among other things, = through=20 photosynthesis, to be the ultimate source of carbon in all living = things. By=20 contrast, silicon dioxide can form only single bonds, leaving two = electrons free=20 to form other bonds and likewise leaving the oxygen atoms free to bond. = The=20 result is that it tends, when bonding to itself, to form a crystal, = namely=20 quartz. Thus silicon becomes overly stable. At the same time it can be = not=20 stable enough, for silicon can actually form up to six bonds, making = more=20 complex silicon compounds less stable than carbon compounds, where the = bonds=20 never exceed four. Also the C"C bond is more stable than the Si"Si bond. = It is=20 crucial to DNA that, although it is very long, it is nonetheless = normally very=20 stable. It is also significant that the various bonds into which carbon = enters=20 are similar in the energy required to form them and are also fairly = evenly=20 divided between being endothermic and exothermic (absorb energy vs. = release=20 energy). Both of these facts result in there being a great number of = chemical=20 processes involving carbon which can take place with relative = spontaneity.=20 Silicon is not nearly so well suited. Finally, "Since carbon forms a = wider=20 variety of compounds than any other element besides hydrogen, this means = that=20 more information can be stored in carbon compounds than in those of any = other=20 element. Since life is self-reproduction of information, carbon = compounds are=20 uniquely fitted to serve as the basis of life."⁸ Much more could be said, but it should be evident that = even if=20 silicon-based life were possible"which is dubious, it appears to be a = decidedly=20 less attractive alternative.

Saying this about carbon is really a lead-in to a point raised by = Fred Hoyle=20 about the formation of carbon in stars. He suggested (and it was later = shown)=20 that carbon is able to form readily in stars of the right temperature = because of=20 a resonance between carbon, beryllium, and helium. Just as = electrons may=20 exist at various distinct energy levels, so different kinds of nuclei = exhibit=20 distinct energy levels at which they may exist. Now, when two nuclei = fuse, the=20 efficiency of the reaction is greatly enhanced if the intrinsic energy = level of=20 the contributing nuclei together with the kinetic energy equals or just = exceeds=20 a possible energy level for the resulting nucleus. When this happens the = interaction is said to be resonant . Hoyle realized that for = carbon to=20 form successfully there would have to be resonance. Fortunately, this = does occur=20 in stars in the formation of carbon. The process involves two helium = nuclei=20 fusing to form beryllium-8, which although not stable, exists = "anomalously long=20 compared to the He4 + He4 = collision=20 time,"⁹=20 due to a resonance between He4 and Be8. The Be8 exists long enough = for a=20 significant rate of collisions of it with another He4=20 nucleus. Remarkably, C12 also has a resonance = with both=20 He4 and Be8 in this = interaction. As a=20 consequence, a significant amount of carbon is produced in spite of what = appeared initially to be an implausible pathway for its production. = Fortunately=20 for us, the further fusion of carbon with another helium into oxygen = does=20 not resonate.

If this reaction were also resonant, all the carbon = would be=20 rapidly burnt to O16. . . . Hoyle realized that this remarkable chain of = coincidences"the unusual stability of beryllium, the existence of an=20 advantageous resonance level in C12 and the non-existence of an = [advantageous=20 resonance] level in O16"were necessary, and remarkably fine-tuned, = conditions=20 for our own existence and indeed the existence of any carbon-based life = in the=20 Universe.¹⁰=20

The presence or absence of resonances here could in theory be = accounted for=20 in terms of the strong nuclear force, the electromagnetic force, and the = masses=20 of the sub-atomic particles involved but, with atoms of this size, the=20 complexity of it becomes overwhelming. Nonetheless, Hoyle suggests that = perhaps=20 an increase in the strong force by but 1% might cause almost all carbon = to have=20 formed into oxygen,¹¹=20 and Rosental suggests that an increase in it of 10% would result in = little=20 carbon being able to form, the fusion process getting stuck at helium.¹²=20 And if it were a bit larger than this, Carr and Rees indicate that = "nuclei of=20 almost unlimited size" would form.¹³

Part of what is interesting about the aforementioned resonances is = that it is=20 not the kind of coincidence which one would expect some overarching = theory of=20 the universe to entail. It certainly may be so entailed, but there is no = a=20 priori reason to expect it. Resonance is not the rule; and apart = from the=20 fact that we are here, there is no reason to expect that the resonances = of the=20 above reactions should be as they are.

Again, there are many other examples of apparent fine tuning which = could have=20 been mentioned, but the two examples illustrate the sort of arguments As = mentioned above, the apparent fine tuning of the laws of physics does = not itself=20 entail that there is a cosmic designer,¹⁴=20 but it does lend significant support to that claim that this world is = the=20 handiwork of God.

Footnotes

1. See for instance, Michael Behe's Darwin's = Black=20 Box (New York: Simon & Schuster [Free Press], 1996)) or Dean = Overman's=20 A Case Against Accident and Self-Organization (Rowman & = Littlefield).=20 (back)
2.=20 Reese, Martin, Before the Beginning: Our Universe = and=20 Others (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley [Helix Books, Perseus Books], = 1997). See=20 especially pp. 231-239. .(back)
3.=20 P[aul] C. W. Davies, The Accidental Universe=20 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982), vii. (back)
4.=20 Helium is inert and hence does not bind with any = other=20 elements, and lacking sigificant quantities of other elements, hydrogen = atoms=20 will simply form into pairs of hydrogen atoms. (back)
5.=20 Ibid., 68. For a more mathematical account of this = see Barrow=20 and Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, 309-310, or see = the=20 article by B. J. Carr and M. J. Rees, "The Anthropic Principle and the = Structure=20 of the Physical World," Nature 278, 12 (1979): 605-612. (back)
6.=20 Leslie, Universes, 35. He cites Martin J. = Rees in=20 The Constants of Physics: Proceeding Meeting by A Royal Society = Discussion=20 Meeting. Held on 25 and 26 May 1983. , eds. William Hunter McCrea = and Martin=20 J. Rees, London: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, A310 = (1983):=20 209-363. (back)
7.=20 Small amounts of some of the lighter elements, e.g. = up through=20 oxygen, can escape from certain classes of stars via stellar winds, but = this is=20 minute compared to what comes from supernovae (back)
8.=20 Barrow and Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological=20 Principle, 547. Again, they provide references to a number of other = sources.=20 (back)
9.=20 Ibid., 252. (back)
10.=20 Ibid., 253. (back)
11.=20 Fred Hoyle, Astrophysical Journal , = supplementary 107=20 (1957): 516. (back)
12.=20 I. L. Rozental, Structure of the Universe and = Fundamental=20 Constants (Moscow: 1981), 8. Cited in Leslie, Universes, 35. = (back)
13.=20 M. J. Rees, in The Constants of Physics, = 611. (back)
14.=20 The usual atheistic response these days is to = suggest that=20 there are a vast number of universes or big bangs amongst which the = values of=20 the basic physical constants vary. That the physical constants which we = observe=20 seem fine tuned so as to make life possible is explained simply by = virtue of the=20 truism that any location (or universe) where creatures like ourselves = could be=20 pondering this fact must be in a place which is capable of sustaining = their=20 existence. If the existence of intelligent beings requires that the = values of=20 the physical constants fall within very narrow ranges, then such beings = should=20 not be surprised that they find themselves in such a location. But it = must be=20 noted that the strength of this kind of response (as opposed to = suggesting that=20 the fine tuning is evidence of a designer, i.e. God) depends on the=20 multiple-universe speculation and on the idea that the constants vary = across=20 these universes. Such speculation, however, is not driven by any = evidence that=20 such universes exist other than the apparent fine tuning itself. (An = alternative=20 way of getting a multiple-universe type explanation is to embrace the = many-world=20 interpretation of quantum mechanics, but this has major difficulties = which must=20 be addressed on another occasion.) (back)=20

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