The=A0 Nuclear Physics Group

From: Subject: =?iso-8859-1?Q?The=A0_Nuclear_P?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?hysics_Group?= Date: Mon, 16 Jun 2003 15:52:11 -0400 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0017_01C3341F.3F7CCD40"; type="text/html" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V5.00.3314.1001 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0017_01C3341F.3F7CCD40 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: =?iso-8859-1?B?aHR0cDovL3d3dy5ucC4=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?cGguYmhhbS5hYy51ay8=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?cmVzZWFyY2gvYW50aHI=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?b3BpYy5odG0=?= The=A0 Nuclear Physics Group

The Nuclear Physics = Group


THE NUCLEAR=20 PHYSICS GROUP

Nuclear=20 Physics Research
- Introduction
- Staff Members
- = For Prospective PhD=20 Students
- Job=20 Vacancies
- How to=20 Find Us

Research Groups
- Introduction
- Relativistic = Heavy Ion Collisions
- Charissa-=20 Laser=20 Spectroscopy of Unstable Isotopes
- Positron = Emission=20 Tomography
- Nuclear = Power=20 Technology

Useful=20 Information
- Seminars
- Recent = Publications=20

Links
- Positron Imaging = Centre
-=20 Charissa=20 Collaboration
- School of=20 Physics and Astonomy

= =20






	NUCLEAR = PHYSICS GROUP=20 SITE SEARCH

	SITE=20 SEARCH

Life, Bent = Chains, and the=20 Anthropic Principle=20

You would = not be=20 reading these web pages were it not for nuclear physics in = general, and in=20 particular for the remarkable properties of the nucleus of the = isotope=20 carbon-12. It is a special energy state of this nucleus which = enables all=20 life to exist and whose structure looks like a bent chain of three = alpha=20 particles connected together. This particular state is unique, = because its=20 existence was predicted by the Anthropic Principle before it was=20 discovered by nuclear physicists - but more about that = later!=20

All = living organisms=20 rely on the chemistry of the element carbon, whose ability to form = complex=20 'organic' molecules is so vital for the construction of the = "Double Helix"=20 of the DNA which determines the genetic blueprint of every life = form. But=20 where does all the carbon come from in the Universe?=20

The last = years before=20 the second world war saw a rush of interest in the role of nuclear = fusion=20 reactions and their role in the formation of the elements=20 (nucleosynthesis) at the beginning of the Universe and as a = producer of=20 energy in stars. There was controversy about whether there was a = 'Big=20 Bang' or a 'steady state' Universe, but general agreement that at = some=20 point in time, some primordial nuclear fusion reactions had = occurred to=20 form the element helium from the hydrogen which comprises most of = the=20 matter in the Universe.=20

Present = models tell=20 us that about 0.1 seconds after the Big Bang, the primordial = elements of=20 our Universe were formed- the lightest element, hydrogen, = consisting of a=20 single proton and an electron, together with about 25% of the = element=20 helium, whose nucleus we call an 'alpha' particle and which has = two=20 electrons. In addition there were tiny quantities of deuterium - a = heavy=20 isotope of hydrogen, as well as traces of the element = lithium.=20

But how = were the=20 other elements formed? How was the carbon made to build our = bodies? Whence=20 came the oxygen to create our seas and the atmosphere we breathe? = What=20 about the silicon in the sand and in the microchips inside this = computer,=20 or the calcium in our bones, and the iron which courses around our = arteries carrying the precious oxygen to our cells?=20

The clues = lay in the=20 stars; by the 1930s it was clear that it was the enormous energy = locked up=20 inside the nucleus which provided the heat of the stars, and = enabled them=20 to burn for periods approaching the lifetime of the Universe which = is more=20 than ten thousand million years! The burning (fusion) of hydrogen = in stars=20 was studied by Hans Bethe and Chas. Critchfield [ Phys. Rev. = 54(1938) 248=20 +862 ] who proposed that two protons could react together to form=20 deuterium. This reaction is extremely unlikely ( nuclear = physicists say=20 that it has 'a small cross section' ), but this is offset by the = huge=20 number of protons available in the average star.=20

The = deuterium is=20 rapidly destroyed by reacting with another proton to form a light = isotope=20 of helium called helium-3. The helium-3 in turn reacts with more = helium-3=20 to create a helium-4 (an 'alpha' particle) and two protons. These=20 reactions are called the 'hydrogen cycle' or 'proton-proton = cycle'. Later,=20 Weizacker [ Phys. Zs 39(1938) 633] and Bethe [ Phys. Rev. 55 = (1939) 434]=20 proposed the 'carbon cycle' which also burned hydrogen with the = same=20 release of energy as the 'hydrogen cycle', but with the carbon = nucleus=20 acting as a catalyst as it was destroyed and re-created during the = cycle.=20

But where = did the=20 carbon come from in order to act as a catalyst?=20

In 1946 = George Gamow=20 had suggested that nucleosynthesis was associated with events at = the=20 origin of the Universe, whilst Fred Hoyle and others had suggested = that=20 ALL the elements heavier than helium had been made in the furnaces = of=20 stars, but nobody could see a way in which these heavy elements = could be=20 formed, nor was there any experimental evidence of nucleosynthesis = in=20 stars.=20

The = 'smoking gun' was=20 discovered in 1952 when Paul Merrill identified the spectrum of = the=20 element of technetium in certain S type (red giant) stars. The = element=20 technetium is special- it is unknown in the crust of the Earth, = because it=20 has NO stable isotopes! Even its most stable isotopes, = technetium-97 and=20 98 have half lives of only a few million years, so that during the = long=20 age of the solar system, this element has vanished from the Earth. = But its=20 existence was discovered by Perrier and Segre in 1937 in a sample = of=20 molybdenum sent by E O Lawrence from the Berkeley cyclotron, and = it became=20 the first element to be produced by artifical means. The = observation of=20 technetium in stars showed that nucleosynthesis was not confined = to the=20 early period of the Universe, but was happening now!=20

Later = observation of=20 supernovae explosions showed that the output of light from the = star=20 followed the characteristic curve associated with radioactive = decay - in=20 particular the 6 day half life of nickel-56 and the 77 day half = life of=20 cobalt-56. Here was direct evidence of the production of elements = in=20 exploding stars.=20

So = nucleosynthesis=20 was taking place in stars, but how? Here is the problem:- the = fusion of=20 hydrogen to make helium seemed to lead to a 'dead-end'. Once = helium was=20 made, it appeared impossible to fuse enough protons or heliums = together to=20 make heavier elements. For example, if one tries to fuse a proton = with a=20 helium-4 to make lithium-5 then the lithium-5 decays immediately = into an=20 alpha particle and a proton! Similarly, if one tries to fuse two = alpha=20 particles to make the nucleus beryllium-8, the beryllium-8 = immediately=20 decays into two alpha particles again with a lifetime of less than = 10^-16 seconds.!=20

These = gaps in the=20 stable nuclei at mass-5 and mass-8 were the stumbling block; a new = process=20 was needed to 'hop' over these gaps so that one could create the = carbon=20 nucleus, and hence all nuclei heavier than carbon.=20

One idea = was that if=20 THREE alpha particles could simultaneously come together, then a = nucleus=20 of carbon-12 might be created, but the probability of this = happening was=20 calculated to be so small, that it could never reproduce the = amount of=20 carbon in our Universe.=20

The = solution was=20 suggested by an astrophysicist, Ed Salpeter, in 1952, and is = perhaps the=20 first example of what is now called a 'two-step process' and has = been=20 shown to occur in many nuclear reactions. Ed suggested that if two = alpha=20 particles fused to form beryllium-8, then there was a short time = before=20 the beryllium decayed again; - if, during this short time, a third = alpha=20 particle collided with the beryllium-8 then there was a small = chance of=20 creating the carbon-12 nucleus.=20

This = seemed like a=20 good idea- but there was another problem, - this time with the = final=20 carbon-12 nucleus. In order for the beryllium-8 and the alpha = particle to=20 form a nucleus of carbon-12 the combined mass-energies of these = two=20 components have to be very close to an energy state in carbon-12 = which has=20 a similar mass-energy. In detail, the combined mass-energy must = not be=20 larger than the mass-energy of the carbon-12 state, but can be = slightly=20 smaller, because the energies of the particles rushing around = inside a hot=20 star enables them to bridge the gap. The state in carbon-12 is = then called=20 a 'resonance' in the beryllium-8 + alpha particle system. Once the = resonant state is formed it may then decay to the lowest energy or = ground=20 state of carbon-12 to create the stable nucleus.=20

But no = resonance was=20 known in carbon-12! Enter Fred Hoyle. Hoyle calculated the = temperature=20 inside a large star to be about 100 million degrees and worked out = how=20 much kinetic energy this would give to the particles rushing = around in the=20 star's atmosphere. Knowing the masses of both beryllium-8 and the = alpha=20 particle, he was able to predict that there must be an excited = state at an=20 energy of 7.6 million electron volts in the nucleus carbon-12. His = certainty of the existence of this state was based on what we now = call the=20 'Anthropic Principle' - since he, Fred Hoyle, a life form based = upon=20 carbon molecules, existed, then the resonance must also exist to = create=20 the carbon. A team at Cal. Tech. led by Willy Fowler ( later a = Nobel Prize=20 winner) began the search for the mysterious resonant state in = carbon-12,=20 and discovered it - just a few percent above Hoyle's prediction. = To this=20 day, the 7.6MeV state in carbon-12 is known as the 'Hoyle = resonance', and=20 Hoyle's prediction of its existence is possibly the only proven = example of=20 a scientific prediction using the 'Anthropic Principle'.=20

If you = think that the=20 two-step process that forms the excited state at 7.6MeV is an = amazing=20 coincidence, then the decay of this state is even more remarkable! = Because=20 the mass-energy of this state is larger than than the combined = masses of a=20 beryllium-8 and an alpha particle, the state tends to decay by = simple=20 breaking up into a beryllium-8 and an alpha particle! However for = every=20 ten thousand decays, four result in the emission of two gamma rays = which=20 takes the excited carbon-12 nucleus to its stable ground state! So = it is=20 that rare two=3Dstep process and those 4 in 10,000 decays which = enable me to=20 write this piece and for you to read it!=20

This = remarkable=20 prediction transformed nuclear astrophysics; once the element = carbon had=20 been formed the production of heavier elements fell into place, = and there=20 was no longer a problem of the 'carbon-cycle' as the dominant mode = of=20 energy production in heavier stars.=20

In 1957, = a famous=20 paper was published describing the synthesis of the elements = inside stars=20 by Geoffrey and Margaret Burbage, Willy Fowler and Fred Hoyle and = now=20 known by the initial letters of the author's surnames as BBFH [ = Rev. Mod.=20 Phys. 29 (1957) 547].=20

What = about the=20 excited state at 7.6MeV in carbon-12? It still attracts interest, = and the=20 CHARISSA=20 collaboration have studied many nuclear reactions in which this = state is=20 involved. It is difficult, because the excited nucleus flies apart = into=20 three alpha particles before they reach our detectors, so that the = detection systems need to be able to detect many particles = simultaneously,=20 and also be able to reconstruct the energy and position of each=20 particle.=20

Theoreticians have=20 now calculated that the carbon nucleus in its ground state looks = rather=20 like a triangle of three alpha particles, but the famous "Hoyle = resonance'=20 is an example of a 'chain-state' consisting of three alpha = particles in a=20 kind of bent chain. Of course, beryllium -8 is an example of a = two-alpha=20 chain state (though very short lived!), but there are theoretical=20 predictions that there may be other states in other nuclei which = consist=20 of chains of alpha particles, because of the stability of the = alpha=20 particle.=20

Recent = calculations=20 of highly excited states in light nuclei have indicated that many = states=20 may look like chains of alpha particles which are bound together = by=20 neutrons or protons, rather like the co-valent bonding of atoms by = electrons to form molecules. This area of research is known as = Nuclear=20 Molecular Analogues, and the CHARISSA=20 collaboration is now actively searching for such states.=20

A last = thought; it is=20 estimated that each atom in your body has passed through about = eight stars=20 since the beginning of the Universe. Only the hydrogen in the = water in=20 your cells is an exception, since most of it was formed after the = Big=20 Bang, but all other elements were created by a succesion of stars = which=20 condensed, formed, burned, died or exploded again and again over = thousands=20 of millions of years!=20

Finally, = a worthy=20 successor to the famous BBFH paper has appeared in Reviews of = Modern=20 Physics, Vol. 69, no. 4 (1997) 995 by Wallerstein et al. This = reveals our=20 growing knowledge over the last 40 years, but also higlights much = that we=20 do not understand; so the quest continues.=20

N M = Clarke, 18th=20 November 1999=20

[back to = top]=20

This page = is=20 maintained by the Nuclear = Physics=20 Group.

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