From: Subject: 15 Ancient Greek Heroes from Plutarch's Lives Date: Wed, 10 Mar 2004 08:26:59 -0800 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C40679.74B4C530"; type="multipart/alternative" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2800.1106 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C40679.74B4C530 Content-Type: multipart/alternative; boundary="----=_NextPart_001_0001_01C40679.74B4C530" ------=_NextPart_001_0001_01C40679.74B4C530 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.e-classics.com/index.html 15 Ancient Greek Heroes from Plutarch's Lives <body> <blockquote> <p ALIGN=3D"center"><font face=3D"Times New Roman,Times New Roman" = size=3D"4" color=3D"#FF00FF"><small><small><strong>From Plutarch's <em>Lives</em>, still inspirational after 19 = centuries:</strong></small></small></font></p> <blockquote> <p ALIGN=3D"center"><font color=3D"#800080" FACE=3D"Times New = Roman,Times New Roman" size=3D"5"><strong>15 Ancient Greek Heroes<br> from Plutarch's <em>Lives</em></strong></font><br> <font color=3D"#FF00FF"><font FACE=3D"Symbol"><font = size=3D"4">P&nbsp L&nbsp O&nbsp U&nbsp T &nbspA&nbsp R&nbsp C&nbsp O&nbsp U</font></font><br> </font><strong><font color=3D"#FF00FF" face=3D"Times New = Roman,Times New Roman" size=3D"2"><em>A modern English edition, abridged and annotated by Wilmot H. = McCutchen</em></font><font color=3D"#FF00FF"><br> </font><font face=3D"Times New Roman,Times New Roman" size=3D"1" = color=3D"#FF00FF">This site and all contents copyrighted =A9 1998, 1999 by Wilmot H. = McCutchen.&nbsp All Rights Reserved.</font></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"left"><strong><font FACE=3D"Times New Roman,Times New = Roman"><a href=3D"preface.htm" target=3D"_self">PREFACE</a><small>&nbsp by the author.&nbsp It's = brief, so start here, then read the following biographies in = order:</small></font></strong></p> <font FACE=3D"Times New Roman,Times New Roman"><p = ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><a href=3D"theseus.htm" = target=3D"_self"><big>Theseus</big></a></strong> &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp = <i><strong>The Athenian Adventurer</strong></i> (<em>circa</em> 1300 B.C.) <br> <strong><small>Theseus suppressed crime and brought the natives of = Attica together into the first democracy.&nbsp He saved the Athenian children from the = Minotaur, but his kidnap of the queen of the Amazons brought trouble, and he ended = his days in disgrace. </small></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><a href=3D"lycurgus.htm" = target=3D"_self"><big>Lycurgus</big></a></strong> &nbsp&nbsp<strong><em>T</em><i>he Father of Sparta</i></strong> = (<em>circa</em> 800 B.C.) <br> <strong><small>Lycurgus established harmony, simplicity, and = strength in Sparta. &nbspThis warrior society tamed its youth through systematic = education aimed at developing leadership, courage, public spirit, and = wisdom.</small></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><big><a href=3D"solon.htm" = target=3D"_self">Solon</a></big></strong> &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp&nbsp <i><strong>The Lawmaker of Athens</strong> = </i>(<em>circa</em> 600 B.C.) <br> <strong><font face=3D"Times New Roman,Times New Roman" = size=3D"2">Athens, unlike Sparta, was a money-mad commercial city.&nbsp The constitution framed by Solon = mitigated the class struggle between the rich and the poor, and allowed for the growth = of democratic institutions.</font> </strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><a href=3D"ARISTIDES.htm" = target=3D"_self"><big>Aristides</big></a></strong> &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp&nbsp <em><strong>&quotThe Just&quot</strong></em> = (530 - 468 B.C.) <br> <strong><small>Aristides was so respected throughout Greece that = Athens assumed the leadership of the alliance against the Persian invaders.&nbsp His = character is a model for all ages.</small></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><a href=3D"pericles.htm" = target=3D"_self"><big>Pericles</big></a></strong> &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp&nbsp <em><strong>&quotThe = Olympian&quot</strong></em> (495 - 429 B.C.) <br> <strong><small>By the power of his eloquence, and the money = embezzled from Athens' unwilling allies, Pericles built Athens into a beautiful city and = a powerful empire. &nbsp Athenian imperialism, however, led to war with Sparta, known = to history as the Peloponnesian War.</small></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><a href=3D"nicias.htm" = target=3D"_self"><big>Nicias</big></a></strong> &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp<strong><i>The Slave of Fear</i></strong> (died 413 = B.C.) <br> <font face=3D"Times New Roman,Times New Roman" = size=3D"2"><strong>The turning point of the war with Sparta was the disastrous Sicilian Expedition eagerly = undertaken by the greedy Athenians.&nbsp Nicias was the reluctant leader in this = debacle.</strong></font></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><big><a href=3D"AGESILAUS.html" = target=3D"_self">Agesilaus</a></big></strong> &nbsp&nbsp<strong><i>The Lame King of Sparta</i></strong> (444 - = 360 B.C.) <br> <small><strong>Agesilaus inherited the Spartan throne after Sparta = had defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian War.&nbsp&nbsp At that time, Sparta was the = undisputed master of Greece and the Aegean.&nbsp Because of his stubborn lust for = conquest, Agesilaus violated the laws of Lycurgus against imperialistic ventures and fighting = too much with the same enemy. &nbsp By the time Agesilaus died, Sparta had lost most of = its prestige and power</strong>.</small> </p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><big><a href=3D"PELOPIDAS.htm" = target=3D"_self">Pelopidas</a></big></strong> &nbsp&nbsp<i><strong>The Freedom Fighter</strong> </i>(410 - 364 = B.C.) <br> <strong><small>Pelopidas led the Thebans to recover their liberty, = then he led them to victory over the invincible Spartans.&nbsp From beginning to end, = his was the life of a hero.</small></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><a href=3D"dion.htm" = target=3D"_self"><big>Dion</big></a></strong> &nbsp&nbsp<i><strong>The Savior of Syracuse</strong> </i>(409 - = 354 B.C.)<br> <strong><font face=3D"Times New Roman,Times New Roman" = size=3D"2">Sicily was an important part of the Greek world. Dion led the struggle against tyranny in its = largest city, Syracuse.&nbsp Betrayal and ingratitude were his = reward</font><font size=3D"2"> for indulging the democrats of Syracuse</font><font face=3D"Times New = Roman,Times New Roman" size=3D"2">.</font></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><a href=3D"timoleon.htm" = target=3D"_self"><big>Timoleon</big></a></strong><i> &nbsp&nbsp<strong>The Friend of Fortune</strong></i> (411 - 336 = B.C.) <br> <strong><small>Against heavy odds, but with the help of the gods, = Timoleon took up where Dion had left off, and liberated Sicily from barbarians and = tyrants.&nbsp His courage and wisdom established peace and prosperity where before there had = been desolation and war.</small></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><big><a href=3D"ALEXANDER.htm" = target=3D"_self">Alexander</a></big></strong> &nbsp&nbsp<strong><em>&quotThe Great&quot</em> </strong>(356 - 323 = B.C.) <br> <strong><small>In an amazing eleven-year journey of conquest, = young Alexander of Macedonia conquered all the way from Egypt to India.&nbsp Behind him came = Greek institutions and the Greek language, which became the standard of the ancient = world.&nbsp The intoxication of power caused Alexander to become strange to his friends, and he = died unhappy.</small></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><a href=3D"phocion.htm" = target=3D"_self"><big>Phocion</big></a></strong> &nbsp<strong><em>&quotThe Good&quot</em></strong> (402 - 318 B.C.) = <br> <font face=3D"Times New Roman,Times New Roman" = size=3D"2"><strong>After her defeat in the Peloponnesian War, and her surrender to the power of Macedonia, = Athens became a decadent democracy.&nbsp Phocion did his best to save his fellow citizens = from their own foolishness, and at last he earned the reward of = Socrates.</strong></font></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><a href=3D"pyrrhus.htm" = target=3D"_self"><big>Pyrrhus</big></a></strong> &nbsp <i><strong>The Fool of Hope</strong> </i>(319 - 272 B.C.) = <br> <strong><small>In Pyrrhus' wild career of restless trouble-making, = we see a soul incapable of satisfaction.&nbsp He was a mighty man of war, and nearly = conquered Rome, but he could never finish what he started before getting distracted by a new = project.</small></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong><big><a href=3D"agis.htm" = target=3D"_self">Agis</a></big></strong> &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp<i><strong>The Reformer of Sparta</strong></i> = (reigned 245 - 241 B.C.) <br> <strong><small>The love of money had virtually destroyed the laws = of Lycurgus in Sparta by the time Agis became king.&nbsp This idealistic young man tried to = restore the old way of life that had made Sparta great, but he was defeated by the power = of greed.</small><i> </i></strong></p> <p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><big><strong><a href=3D"PHILOPOEMEN.htm" = target=3D"_self">Philopoemen</a></strong> </big>&nbsp<strong><em>&quotThe Last of the = Greeks&quot</em></strong> (252 - 182 B.C.) <br> <strong><small>Philopoemen led the last remnants of resistance to = the creeping domination of Rome in Greece.&nbsp In this austere general, we see an = indomitable character, superior to his circumstances.</small></strong></p> <i><p ALIGN=3D"JUSTIFY"><strong>Postscript</i>:</strong>&nbsp&nbsp = <strong><big><a href=3D"plutarch.htm" target=3D"_self">Plutarch</a></big></strong> = (<em>circa</em> 40 - 120 A.D.) <br> <strong><small>Who was Plutarch, and why was his work such a hit = in the Renaissance? &nbsp More important, why has it nearly disappeared after being = long at the top of the Western classical canon?</small></strong></p> <i><p ALIGN=3D"LEFT"></i><strong><em><small><a = href=3D"chronology.htm">CHRONOLOGY&nbsp OF&nbsp ANCIENT &nbsp GREECE </a></small><br> </em><small>A timeline so you can see the flow of events during = the rise and fall of Ancient Greece.</small></strong></p> </font><p ALIGN=3D"center"><strong><em><font FACE=3D"Times New = Roman,Times New Roman">Shortcuts to Major Topics:</font></em></strong><br> <a href=3D"ALEXANDER.htm#Troy">Trojan War</a> | <a = href=3D"theseus.htm#Amazons">Amazons</a> | <a href=3D"solon.htm#Solon">Atlantis</a> | <a = href=3D"phocion.htm#Socrates">Socrates</a> | <a href=3D"nicias.htm#Plato">Plato</a> | <a = href=3D"agis.htm#Leaders">Fable of the Snake</a> | <br> <a href=3D"ARISTIDES.htm#Persians">Battle of Marathon</a> | <a href=3D"ARISTIDES.htm#Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a> | = <a href=3D"ARISTIDES.htm#When">Battle of Plataea</a> | <a = href=3D"PELOPIDAS.htm#5">Battle of Leuctra</a> | <br> <a href=3D"ARISTIDES.htm#When the gods">The Four Ages of = Humanity</a></p> <div align=3D"center"><center><table border=3D"0" = cellspacing=3D"1" width=3D"233" bgcolor=3D"#FF00FF" cellpadding=3D"3"> <tr> <td width=3D"227"><p align=3D"center"><strong><a = href=3D"links.htm"><big>Ancient Greece Links</big></a></strong></td> </tr> </table> </center></div> </blockquote> <blockquote> <p align=3D"center"><strong><small>This site first posted on = September 15, 1998.</small></strong>&nbsp </p> <p align=3D"center"><em><strong>Latest = revision:</strong></em>&nbsp January 12, 1999</p> </blockquote> <blockquote> <p>Comments?&nbsp Or would you like a floppy of this site, in = hypertext with the vocabulary frame, that you can read on your browser?&nbsp This has = the full look and feel of the net version, but without the download delays ($15, = including shipping in US).&nbsp It's a great tool for SAT verbal preparation, or for polishing the = business English of advanced foreign students.&nbsp Write to <br> <br> &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp Wilmot McCutchen<br> &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp P.O. Box 689<br> &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp Orinda, CA 94563<br> <br> Donations to this cause will be gratefully accepted.&nbsp You can = e-mail me at <a = href=3D"mailto:yowilmot@pacbell.net">yowilmot@pacbell.net</a>.&nbsp </p> </blockquote> <p>&nbsp</p> </blockquote> </body> ------=_NextPart_001_0001_01C40679.74B4C530 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.e-classics.com/ALEXANDER.htm Alexander the Great

A L E X A N D E = R
"The Great"
(356 -323 B.C.)
A L E X A N D R O = S
by=20 Plutarch
In an amazing eleven-year journey of conquest, = young=20 Alexander of Macedonia conquered all the way from Egypt to = India.  =20 Behind him came Greek institutions and the Greek language, which = became the=20 standard of the ancient world.   The intoxication of power = caused=20 Alexander to become strange to his friends, and he died=20 unhappy.

    My intention= is not=20 to write histories, but lives.   Sometimes small incidents,= rather=20 than glorious exploits, = give us=20 the best evidence of character.  So, as portrait painters are = more exact=20 in doing the face (where the character is revealed) than the rest of = the body,=20 I must be allowed to give my more particular attention to the marks of = the=20 souls of men.  By these, rather than the historical events they=20 participated in, I try to portray their lives.  I leave the task = of a=20 more complete historical chronicle= to=20 others.

    On the day that Alexander was born, = the=20 temple of Diana at Ephesus 1=20 burned down, an omen which the fortune-tellers of the East interpreted = as a=20 sign that on that day, the force that would destroy Asia had entered = the=20 world.

    Alexander had light skin, blond = hair, and=20 melting blue eyes.  A sweet natural fragrance= came=20 from his body, so strong that it perfumed his clothes. 

    Action and glory, rather than = pleasure and=20 wealth, were what Alexander wanted from life.  Fame was his=20 passion.  When he heard of the conquests of his father, King = Philip of=20 Macedonia, Alexander was not happy about the additional wealth and = power that=20 he would inherit, but instead was sad that there would be less left = for him to=20 conquer.  Alexander often lamented to his friends that the way = things=20 were going, nothing would be left for him to do once he became king. =

    Alexander wanted a kingdom involved = in=20 trouble and war, where he would have an ample field to exercise his = courage=20 and make his mark on history.  He disdained= a life=20 of comfortable sloth.  = This=20 young warrior was always a great patron of = the arts=20 and of learning.  He enjoyed and encouraged hunting and the = martial arts,=20 except for boxing.

* * *

    Bucephalus was Alexander's horse = throughout=20 most of his career.  Some horse traders had brought this = magnificent=20 animal to King Philip and offered him for sale, but no man could ride=20 him.  The traders were taking Bucephalus away when Alexander = remarked=20 that it was a shame to lose such a fine horse just because no one knew = the=20 right way to manage him.  Philip at first ignored the boy, but = Alexander=20 persisted.=20   Finally Philip said: "Do you presume = to=20 criticize those who are older than you, as if you knew more, and could = do=20 better?"  Alexander boldly declared that he would ride the horse, = and=20 everyone laughed.  He bet the price of the horse, and got the = chance to=20 try.

    Alexander had noticed that = Bucephalus was=20 afraid of his own shadow, so he turned the horse to face the sun and = settled=20 him down, then walked him in that direction for a while, stroking him = whenever=20 he became eager and fiery.   Suddenly, Alexander jumped on his = back and=20 drew in the bridle gently, but firmly, until all rebelliousness was=20 gone.  Then he let Bucephalus go at full speed, urging him on = with a=20 commanding voice.

    Alexander's father and the others = looked on=20 nervously until they saw Alexander turn at the end of his run and come = back in=20 triumph.   "Oh my son," said King Philip with tears in his eyes, = "find=20 yourself a kingdom equal to and worthy of yourself, for Macedonia is = too=20 little for you."

    After this, Philip sent for = Aristotle 2=  =20 to be Alexander's tutor.  Ordinary teachers would not be = enough for=20 Alexander, who could easily be led by reason but refused to submit to = compulsion. =20 All kinds of learning and reading interested him, but Homer=92s=20 Iliad  3=20  was by far his favorite book.  He always took a copy, = annotated by=20 Aristotle, along on his campaigns.  Aristotle had a profound = influence on=20 Alexander, who said that he loved Aristotle as much as Philip -- his = father=20 had given him life, and his teacher had taught him to use it.

* * *

    When Alexander was sixteen, Philip = left him=20 in charge of Macedonia while he went away on a campaign against the = people of=20 Byzantium.  The Maedi rebelled while Philip was gone, and = Alexander led=20 an army against their largest city.  He moved out the Maedi and = renamed=20 the city "Alexandropolis," after himself.

    Philip put Alexander in command of = the=20 cavalry at the Battle of Chaeronea, 4=20 and Alexander led the charge that broke the Theban Sacred Band. = 5= =20    This early bravery made his father so fond of him = that=20 Philip liked nothing better than to hear his soldiers say that Philip = was=20 their general, but Alexander was their king.

    Philip had a stormy home life with=20 Alexander's mother, Olympias.  Philip had spied on her once and = seen a=20 snake in her bed, and ever since then they had been estranged= . =20 Philip's new marriages enraged = Olympias,=20 who was a violent, jealous, and unforgiving woman.  The trouble = in the=20 women's chambers spread to the whole kingdom.  Olympias even = managed to=20 turn Alexander against his father.

    The breaking point came when Philip = married=20 Cleopatra, the very young niece of Attalus.  At the wedding = feast,=20 Attalus (who was drunk), in his toast, = asked the=20 Macedonians to pray to the gods for a lawful successor to=20 the kingdom through his niece.  This so irritated = Alexander that he threw a cup at Attalus and shouted: "What am I then = -- a=20 bastard?"  Philip (who was also drunk) took Attalus' side and = came at=20 Alexander with a sword, but he slipped and fell down on the = floor. =20 Alexander derided = his drunk=20 and clumsy father and then left Macedonia, along with Olympias.

    An old friend of the family came to = visit=20 Philip, and Philip asked him if the Greeks were at peace with each=20 other.  The visitor replied: "It is strange that you are so = worried about=20 Greece when your own house is torn apart by so many wars."  = Philip got = the=20 point, and called Alexander home.   But soon another matter = came=20 between Alexander and his father.

    By yet another wife, Philip had a = son named=20 Arrhidaeus, who had been a healthy boy until Olympias gave him some = drugs that=20 damaged his brains.  The satrap of = Caria=20 asked for a marriage between his daughter and Arrhidaeus, hoping to = ally=20 himself with Philip's family.  Olympias, aided by a few of = Alexander's=20 companions, filled Alexander's head with suspicions that Philip was = preparing=20 to hand over the kingdom to Arrhidaeus.  So Alexander sent = Thessalus, an=20 actor, to the satrap with instructions to disparage= =20 Arrhidaeus and to offer a marriage with Alexander instead.

    Of course the satrap was much = happier with=20 the prospect of Alexander rather than Arrhidaeus as his = son-in-law.  But=20 when Philip heard about Alexander's proposal, = he emphatically told=20 his son that it was unworthy of the power he was due to inherit to beg = for an=20 alliance with a man who was no more than the slave of a barbarian = king. =20 Philip had Thessalus sent to him in chains, and he banished = some of=20 Alexander's companions who had talked Alexander into this.

    Shortly afterwards, Philip was was = murdered.=20   The assassin was Pausanias, who was angry because Philip had = refused to=20 give him justice for some injury done to him by Attalus.  But it = was=20 Philip's wife who was the instigator. =20 Olympias took this enraged young man and made him the instrument of = her=20 revenge against her husband.  Once Philip was out of the way, = Olympias=20 tortured her hated young rival, = Cleopatra, to=20 death.

    So, at the age of only twenty, = Alexander=20 became king of Macedonia.

    The neighboring states and the = cities of=20 Greece rebelled = against=20 Macedonian rule now that they saw a boy on the throne.  = Alexander's=20 council advised him to give up trying to subjugate= the=20 Greeks and to concentrate his resources on keeping the barbarian = nations of=20 the north under control.  Treat the Greeks kindly, they said, and = that=20 will dissipate= the=20 first impulses of rebellion.=  =20

    But Alexander rejected this = advice.  If=20 any sign of weakness were perceived at the beginning of his = government,=20 everyone would be encouraged to attack, so only in bravery was there=20 safety.  First Alexander marched to the Danube and beat down all=20 opposition from the tribes in that area.  When everything there = was=20 peaceful again, he turned south and marched to Greece.

    There had been a revolution in = Thebes. =20 The demagogues there=20 were urging all of the other Greeks to join Thebes and free themselves = from=20 Macedonian domination.  Athens also was being agitated = by talk=20 of war and rebellion, particularly from the demagogue Demosthenes. 6=20

    After a march of two weeks, = Alexander=20 appeared at the walls of Thebes and demanded that the city send him = the two=20 leaders of the rebellion.   To show how willing he was to forgive = what=20 was in the past, Alexander offered a full pardon for all those that = would take=20 it.  The Thebans gave him an insulting reply, so Alexander killed = six=20 thousand of them, demolished= their=20 city, and sold all of the surviving inhabitants<= /A> as=20 slaves.

    This severe example would make the = other=20 Greeks think twice about the consequences of disobedience.  And = soon the=20 Athenians repented = and reaffirmed= their=20 allegiance=20 to Macedonia.  Whether Alexander's new gentleness toward the = Athenians=20 was the result of remorse = over the=20 horrible cruelty done to Thebes, or merely that his passion for blood = was=20 satisfied, is not certain.  However, from then on Alexander = always showed=20 kindness to any Theban survivor he could find.

    Soon afterwards, representatives of = the=20 Greeks assembled at Corinth and named Alexander to lead them in a war = against=20 Persia. 7 =20 While Alexander was at Corinth, politicians and philosophers came to=20 congratulate him, but he noticed that the famous philosopher Diogenes, = who=20 lived there in Corinth, did not come.

    So Alexander went to visit Diogenes = at his=20 home and found him lying down, sun-bathing.  Diogenes raised = himself up a=20 little when he heard the crowd approaching, and Alexander asked the=20 philosopher very courteously if there was any favor a king could do = for=20 him.  Diogenes only said: "Yes, please take your shadow off = me." =20 Alexander's companions, on the way back, were making fun of the = simple-minded=20 old man, but Alexander told them: "Laugh if you must, but if I were = not=20 Alexander I would choose to be Diogenes."

* * *

    Between 30,000 and 43,000 infantry = and=20 between 3,000 and 4,000 horsemen followed Alexander into Asia Minor = [334=20 B.C.].  He had only 70 talents = for their=20 pay, and no more than thirty days' provisions.  Alexander was 200 = talents=20 in debt, having spent everything he had in making sure that his best = men were=20 able to provide for their families.  When one of his generals = asked what=20 he had kept for himself, Alexander answered: "My hope."  This = general=20 then refused the pension that Alexander offered him, saying: "Your = soldiers=20 will be your partners in that."

    With such desire and determination, = Alexander=20 and his army crossed the Hellespont into Asia and came to Troy. = 8= =20   At the tomb of Achilles, who was his ancestor on his = mother=92s=20 side, Alexander anointed the gravestone with oil and then ran around = it naked=20 with his companions, according to the ancient custom.  Achilles, = he said,=20 was a lucky man to have had a good friend while he was alive and a = good poet=20 to preserve his memory after he was dead. 9=

    Meanwhile, the Persians had camped = on the=20 other side of the Granicus River to prevent Alexander from = crossing.  The=20 Persian force numbered 20,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry, and their = position=20 was strong.  The river was deep, and its banks were high.  = The task of assault = seemed to=20 be impossible, but Alexander immediately led thirteen squadrons of = horsemen=20 across under a shower of arrows.   With frenzied = persistence= =20 they managed to get up the muddy banks and close with the enemy.

    Alexander's white plume and = brilliant armor=20 made him easy to pick out, so the bravest Persians clustered = where he=20 was, and that is where the fight was most furious.  One Persian = chieftain=20 knocked Alexander dizzy with a battle-ax, but Clitus saved Alexander's = life by=20 spearing the assailant= before=20 he could finish the kill.

    The Macedonian phalanx, = meanwhile, had managed to get across the river and form up on the = other=20 side.  The Persians could not stand up against their push, and = soon the=20 whole Persian army was running for their lives.  The losses on = the=20 Persian side were 20,000 infantry and 2,500 cavalry, but Alexander = lost only=20 34 men.

    This first victory changed = everything. =20 All of the cities on the coast surrendered to Alexander, except for=20 Halicarnassus and Miletus, which he had to take by force. 

    Now Alexander faced a difficult = decision:=20 whether to consolidate= =20 his conquests, in order that their resources could provide a secure = base for=20 later operations, or to move immediately against the Persian king = Darius in=20 the heart of his empire.  Consolidation was Alexander's choice, = so he=20 moved down the coast to take control of Lycia, then turned north to=20 Phrygia. 

    There, in the city of Gordium, he = accepted=20 the challenge of the Gordian Knot.  A very intricate= knot=20 tied together the yoke of an ancient chariot, and there was a legend = that=20 whoever could undo the knot would become the master of the world. = Alexander=20 pulled out his sword and chopped through the Gordian Knot, instead of=20 involving himself in its mysterious entanglements.

    King Darius of Persia was on the = way from=20 Susa with an army of 600,000 men.  For some time, Alexander = stayed in=20 Cilicia, which Darius and his advisors attributed to=20 Alexander=92s fear of encountering the overwhelmingl= y=20 large Persian force.  The real reason for Alexander's delay was = that he=20 was getting=20 over a serious illness.

    All of Alexander's attendants were=20 afraid to try any remedies, because if their remedy failed, and = Alexander=20 died, the Macedonians might blame the physician.  But there was = one,=20 Philip the Acarnanian, who dared to try, and he risked his own life to = save=20 Alexander's.  Alexander received a letter from Parmenio, warning = of treachery= by=20 this physician, who, said the letter, had been bribed by Darius to = give poison=20 instead of medicine.  Alexander read the letter, then put it = under his=20 pillow, showing it to no one. When Philip came in with the potion, = Alexander=20 took out the letter and handed it to him, and while Philip read the = letter,=20 Alexander drank the potion with a smile.  In a short time, = Alexander was=20 well.

    The Persians had camped in flat and = open=20 country, where they could take advantage of their superiority in=20 cavalry.  But as weeks passed with no sign of Alexander (who was=20 recovering from his sickness), Darius' flatterers convinced him that = the=20 Greeks were afraid to fight, and therefore Darius should move his army = to=20 Issus to cut off their escape.  Darius marched to Issus at the = same time=20 that Alexander marched into Syria to meet him, and the two armies = passed each=20 other.  When Alexander heard that the Persians were behind him at = Issus,=20 he immediately turned back and hurried to fight there.

    Darius was in an equal hurry to get = out of=20 Issus, because when he saw the rough terrain, = which=20 made his cavalry useless, and split up his army, he realized that the = Greeks=20 could have the advantage.  Before Darius could escape from his = own trap,=20 Alexander had arrived.  Alexander personally commanded the right = wing,=20 which crushed the Persian left.  Darius panicked and rode away, = leaving=20 behind his chariot, his bow, his shield, his mantle, his army, and = 110,000=20 Persian casualties. 10= =20

* * *

    Among the captives taken in the = Persian camp=20 were the mother, wife, and daughters of Darius.  Alexander = assured these=20 women that they had nothing to fear from him or his men, since he = fought with=20 Darius only for his empire, and not for personal spite.  = He=20 guaranteed that they would continue to be treated according to their = rank and=20 would have everything they used to have from Darius.   Alexander = was=20 always very chaste = and courteous= in his=20 relations with the opposite sex, and he had a great respect for the=20 institution of marriage.  He used to say that two things reminded = him=20 that he was human, and not a god: sleeping and the act of generation, = as if to=20 say that both weariness and lust are produced by the same weakness and = imbecility= of=20 human nature.

    In eating, also, Alexander was = totally in=20 command of his appetite, and neither a glutton = nor a gourmet.&nb= sp;=20 When offered the services of some cooks who were said to have great = skill, he=20 declined, saying that the best stimulus to a good appetite was a long = march=20 before breakfast and a moderate breakfast to create an appetite for=20 dinner.  It was generally believed that Alexander was addicted to = wine,=20 but that impression arose from the fact that he liked to stay up late = over=20 wine talking.

    When he had free time, Alexander = would read,=20 write, or hunt.  He would not have dinner until after dark, and = this=20 would be a very long meal because he loved good conversation.  = Usually,=20 his own talk was amusing and intelligent, but Alexander sometimes = would lapse into = braggadocio= . =20 This gave his flatterers a chance to ride him, and put his friends in = the=20 unpleasant position of choosing between shame and danger -- they disdained= to=20 compete in flattery but were afraid not to join in. 

* * *

    After the Battle of Issus [333 = B.C.],=20 Alexander sent some men to Damascus to take possession of the money = and=20 baggage that the Persian army had left there.  Every soldier in = the Greek=20 army became a rich man, with beautiful women for slaves.  = Alexander=20 allowed this because he wanted them to get a taste of barbaric luxury = that=20 would make them more eager to conquer more territory.  He = considered it=20 to be like giving bloodhounds the scent.

    Then Alexander proceeded down the = coast to=20 the city of Tyre, which refused to surrender to him.  While his = army sat=20 down for a siege at Tyre [332 B.C.], Alexander went into Arabia.

    One day, he fell behind the rest of = his army=20 because his old teacher, Lysimachus (whom he used to compare to = Phoenix, the=20 guardian of Achilles) could not keep up.  Night found Alexander = in a very=20 dangerous position: far behind his army and without any fire to combat = the=20 cold.  He noticed some enemy campfires, so he ran over to one, = killed two=20 soldiers with his knife, then carried back a burning stick to his = men. =20 This was typical of Alexander -- he was always encouraging his men by = a=20 personal example of readiness to work and face danger.

    During the seven months that it = took before=20 Tyre finally was sacked, Darius wrote to Alexander and offered to pay = ransom=20 for the prisoners held by Alexander.  Darius also offered to give = Alexander one of his daughters in marriage if Alexander would be = satisfied=20 with dominion=20 over all of the countries west of the Euphrates.  Alexander told = his=20 friends about the offer, and asked their advice. Parmenio said, "If I = were=20 you, I would take it gladly."

    Alexander responded, "So would I, = if I were=20 Parmenio, but I am Alexander, so I will send Darius a different = answer." =20 This was Alexander's answer to Darius: "All of Asia is mine, including = all of=20 its treasure.  This money you offer is already mine.  As for = your=20 daughter, if I want to marry her, I will do so, whether or not you=20 approve.  If there is something you want from me, you may come in = person=20 and ask for it.  Otherwise, I will have to go to where you = are."

* * *

    After Tyre and Gaza had been taken, = Alexander=20 went into Egypt.  He founded the city of Alexandria [331 B.C.] at = the=20 mouth of the Nile, pursuant to a dream he had.  His = fortune-tellers=20 predicted that Alexandria would become a great city that would feed = many=20 strangers, and so it came to = pass.=20

    Then Alexander decided to take a = long journey=20 to an oasis in=20 the middle of a vast desert, to visit the temple of the god Ammon. 11= =20    Not only would water be scarce along the way, but = sandstorms had=20 buried whole armies there before.  All of these dangers and = difficulties=20 did not matter to Alexander, who could not be diverted = from his=20 plan once he had decided to do something.  Alexander's good luck = made him=20 firm in his opinions, and his natural courage made him delight in = overcoming=20 difficulties, as if conquering armies was not enough, and only Nature = herself=20 was a fit opponent for him.

    Alexander's good luck = continued.  Heavy=20 rain solved the water problem, and also prevented sand from = blowing. =20 When the Macedonians lost their way, some ravens came to guide = them. =20 These birds flew ahead to indicate the right direction, and at night = the=20 ravens' calls kept them on the right path.

    At the temple of Ammon, Alexander = asked the=20 oracle = whether=20 he would be allowed to conquer the world, and the oracle said = yes. =20 Returning out of Egypt, Alexander accepted the surrender of all = countries west=20 of the Euphrates.   Then he went after Darius, who by this time = had=20 gathered another army, this time of a million men.

    The two armies came in sight of = each other=20 one night at Gaugamela [also known as Arbela, on October 1, 331 = B.C.]. =20 The noise and campfires of the vast barbarian camp were so frightening = that=20 some of Alexander's generals advised a night attack because it would = be too=20 dangerous to take on such a huge force in daylight.  But = Alexander=20 replied: "I will not steal victory."  To some, this sounded = immature and=20 conceited= ,=20 but it was a wise strategy: if Darius lost this battle, in broad = daylight on a=20 field he had chosen, he would have no excuse for defeat, as he had = before at=20 Issus.  With his heart broken, Darius would not try again.  = The war=20 would be over, even though in his empire Darius had plenty of men and=20 resources to keep up the fight for a long time.  So Alexander and = his men=20 rested until late the next morning. 12=  =20 He awoke alert and cheerful after a long sleep.

    As long as Alexander was riding = around before=20 battle, he used another horse besides Bucephalus, who by now was = growing=20 old.  But when the time came for fighting, he mounted Bucephalus, = and=20 commenced the attack.  On this day Alexander gave a long speech = to the=20 Thessalians and other Greeks, who answered him with loud shouts, = whereupon he=20 put his javelin into his left hand and lifted up his right to the gods = in a=20 prayer for victory.  Just at that moment, an eagle soared over = him and=20 then flew toward the enemy, and this omen put = fire in each=20 man's heart.  The horsemen charged at full speed, followed by the = Macedonian phalanx.&nb= sp; The=20 Persians did not wait for them, but fell back, and Alexander kept = herding them=20 into the center, where Darius stood, along with his best men.  = These fugitives= =20 crowded in and impaired = the ones=20 who stood their=20 ground, so that none of them could do any fighting.  Dead = Persian=20 bodies piled so high around Darius that they almost covered the horses = of his=20 chariot.  Darius mounted a mare, and once again he left his army = behind=20 him. 13=   =20

    Parmenio, who had command of the = left wing,=20 sent an urgent=20 message to Alexander, saying that if reinforc= ements=20 were not sent from the front to the rear, the Greek camp and all of = the=20 baggage would be lost to the Persians.  Alexander replied to = Parmenio=20 that he should remember that if they won, they would not only recover = their=20 own baggage but also take the enemy's; and if they lost, then they = would not=20 have to worry about possessions because their only business would be = to die=20 like brave men.

* * *

    Without opposition, Alexander = marched to=20 Babylon, which immediately surrendered.  Then he went to Susa, = where he=20 took possession of an immense = amount of=20 gold and other treasures.  He continued on into Persia itself and = took=20 Persepolis, the capital, where he spent the winter with his army = [January -=20 May, 330 B.C.].  Darius, meanwhile, escaped to the north with a = small remnant = of his=20 once-splendid=20 force.

    Before going to find Darius, = Alexander held a=20 party for his officers.  He even let them bring women with them, = one of=20 whom was a certain courtesan= named=20 Thais from Athens.  After the drinking had gone on for some time, = Thais=20 announced that she would like to burn down the palace built by King = Xerxes,=20 who had burned down Athens.  Thus, she said, it might be said = that even=20 the women who followed Alexander took greater revenge on the Persians = than all=20 of the Greek generals who had tried before.  This flattering and = amusing=20 proposal naturally got a good reaction from the drunken crowd, and = Alexander=20 went along.  He led the way with a lighted torch in his hand, and = the=20 others followed, yelling and dancing.  When the rest of the = Macedonians=20 heard the noise and found out what was going on, they joined in. =   They=20 hoped that by burning the palace of the monarch of Persia, Alexander = would=20 clearly indicate = his=20 intention to return to Macedonia instead of settling among the=20 barbarians.  However, after the fire had burned for a while, = Alexander=20 gave orders to put it out.

    Of all the things that Alexander = won from=20 Darius, the most precious was an exquisite= =20 box.  He asked his friends what treasure he should keep in = it. =20 There were various suggestions, and good arguments why each was the = most=20 precious thing that he owned, but Alexander finally declared that the = honor=20 would not go to any of these but to his annotated= copy=20 of the Iliad.

    Among the presents that he sent = back to=20 Greece, a huge quantity of frankincen= se=20 and myrrh went = to=20 his tutor, Leonidas.  The reason for this gift was that one day, = when=20 Alexander was still a boy, Leonidas had told him not to use so much of = these=20 spices in the sacrifice he was performing, saying: "When you have = conquered=20 the countries where these things grow, then you may be more liberal, = but for=20 now do not waste the little that we have."  Alexander sent the = following=20 note with the gift: "We send you plenty of frankincense and myrrh so = that in=20 the future you will not be a niggard = to the=20 gods."

    Alexander's natural generosity = increased=20 along with his wealth, and he gave with the grace that makes a gift = really=20 appreciated.  For example, Ariston had killed an enemy, and as he = showed=20 Alexander the head to prove it, he mentioned that the customary= reward=20 for such a service in his country was a gold cup.   Alexander = smiled and=20 said: "Yes, an empty one.  But here is one full of good wine, and = a toast to = your good=20 service and friendship."

    Another time, one of the common = soldiers was=20 driving a mule that carried some of Alexander's treasure.  The = mule was=20 too exhausted to go on, so the soldier put the load on his own=20 shoulders.  Alexander saw the man staggering=20 along, and he asked what was the matter.  The soldier told him = that the=20 mule was too tired to carry the load, and that he was about at the end = of his=20 endurance too.  "Don't give up now," said Alexander, "but carry = what you=20 have there to the end of the journey, then take it to your own tent, = to keep=20 for yourself."

    Alexander was always more = displeased with=20 those who refused his generosity than with those who abused it.  =

    His mother, Olympias, wrote to = Alexander=20 often, and she repeatedly advised him not to make his friends so rich = that=20 they would become kings themselves, with the power to buy their own = retinue,=20 while Alexander became poor and weak through his = generosity.  =20 Alexander sent his mother many presents, and stayed in close touch = with her,=20 but he declined to follow her advice.  This made Olympias angry, = and=20 Alexander patiently endured = her=20 wrath.  Olympias also tried to meddle in the government of = Macedonia, and=20 he bore = with=20 this as well.  Antipater, his governor in Macedonia, wrote = Alexander a=20 long letter full of grievances=20 against Olympias, and Alexander said to his friends: "Antipater does = not=20 realize that one tear of a mother erases ten thousand letters like = this."

* * *

    Now that they were rich, and = addicted to=20 pleasure, Alexander's soldiers began to be lax about = their=20 military training.  He gently scolded = them,=20 saying that he wondered how they could not have learned, after all of = their=20 battles and hardships, that those who labor sleep better than those = who are=20 labored for, and that luxury leads to slavery, while royalty goes with = pain=20 and work.  "Haven't you learned yet," he said, "that the honor = and=20 perfection of our victory consists in avoiding the vices that = have made=20 our enemies so easy to beat?"

    Alexander was particularly = concerned about=20 their lack of exercise.  He made his point by saying that no one = could=20 claim to be a soldier if he did not take care of the equipment that = was=20 nearest to himself, i.e. his body -- even though he might have splendid = armor=20 and a fine horse.  Alexander led by his own example in this: = instead of=20 enjoying lazy days of pleasure, he hunted lions.  But his = followers had=20 become arrogant = now that=20 they were rich.  They were tired of marching and fighting.  = Finally,=20 their bad attitude led them to say bad things about their leader.

    At first Alexander was patient with = them,=20 saying that a king should do good to others, even if he is paid back = with evil=20 words.  He continued to show kind attention to his friends.  = But=20 there was one thing Alexander would never tolerate: = any=20 disrespect to his reputation as a soldier, which was more precious to = him than=20 his life and possessions.

* * *

    Finally, the time came to track = down=20 Darius.  After covering four hundred miles in eleven days, = Alexander and=20 his soldiers were nearly dead from thirst.  Some Macedonian = scouts had=20 brought back a few bags of water from a distant river, and they = offered=20 Alexander a helmet-full.  Although his mouth was so dry that he = nearly=20 was choking, he gave back the helmet with his thanks and explained: = "There is=20 not enough for everyone, and if I drink, the others will faint."  = When=20 his men saw this, they spurred their horses forward and shouted for = him to=20 lead them.  With such a king, they said, they would defy any=20 hardships.

    News came that one Bessus had = betrayed Darius=20 and made him a prisoner in his own camp.  Alexander moved on at a = furious=20 pace, and no more than 160 of his horsemen could keep up with = him.  When=20 they got to the camp, they found that Bessus had left Darius to = die. =20 Darius was barely alive, and as he died he told one of Alexander's men = that it=20 was the culmination of all of his bad luck not to be able to live long = enough=20 to pay back Alexander for the courtesy he had shown to his mother, = wife, and=20 children.  Darius died before Alexander could get to see him = [July 330=20 B.C.]. Alexander put his own cloak over Darius and sincerely lamented = his=20 death.   The body was sent to Darius' mother for an honorable = funeral,=20 suitable to his rank.   The reward of the traitor Bessus was to = be torn=20 apart by bent trees.

* * *

    In Parthia, Alexander rested his = army. =20 It was there that he first put on barbarian= =20 clothes, which at first he wore only when he talked to the barbarians, = as if=20 to win them over by conforming = to=20 their customs.  But afterwards he dressed that way in front of = his=20 soldiers.  This filled them with grief, but they were willing to = indulge = a few eccentricitie= s=20 in such a brave commander.

    Alexander continued into Bactria = and=20 conquered it [328 B.C.].  There, among the captives, he saw = Roxane, the=20 daughter of the king.   It was true love at first sight, and = Alexander=20 married her.  Instead of taking Roxane by force, Alexander went = through=20 all of the Bactrian ceremonies for an official marriage.  This=20 demonstration of his self-control and respect for their culture endeared = him to the=20 barbarians.

    Hephaestion was the friend who most = approved=20 of Alexander's adoption of foreign customs, and he imitated Alexander = in these=20 changes. But Craterus continued to adhere to = Macedonian ways.  Alexander used Hephaestion in dealing with the=20 barbarians, and Craterus in dealing with the Greeks.   He showed = more=20 affection for Hephaestion, whom he called Alexander's friend, and more = respect=20 for Craterus, whom he called the king's friend.  These two = friends always=20 had a secret grudge = against each=20 other, sometimes even quarrelling openly in front of the soldiers. =

    In the army there was widespread resentment= over=20 Alexander's change to foreign clothes and customs.  To the = barbarians, he=20 would demand the groveling= due to=20 an oriental despot, = and would=20 claim the title of Son of God. 14<= /A>   =20 But to the Greeks, Alexander was more modest.  He used to = say that=20 God was the common father of all of us, but especially of the = best. =20 Among his friends he made no effort to keep up the persona = he=20 projected to the barbarians.

* * *

    Philotas, the son of Parmenio, had = a=20 reputation among the Macedonians second only to Alexander = himself. =20 Philotas was brave and able to endure = any fatigue = of war,=20 and he was almost as generous to friends as Alexander.  

    But Philotas carried his arrogance = and his=20 pride of wealth too far.  In him there was none of the grace and=20 gentleness of true greatness, so his spurious = majesty=20 drew a lot of envy=20 and hatred.  For a long time Alexander had heard complaints about = Philotas.  Philotas' father, Parmenio, knowing this, advised = Philotas to=20 behave more modestly. =

    One of the slaves that Philotas had = won was=20 Antigone of Pydna.  One day, Philotas was drunk, and he boasted to = Antigone=20 that he and his father had won all of the victories, even though the = boy=20 Alexander had taken the credit.  Antigone passed this = on to=20 another woman.  Eventually,=20 Craterus heard about this remark, and he brought Antigone secretly to=20 Alexander.   Alexander listened to her account = and then=20 told her to continue to pump Philotas and bring him reports of what he = said.  But Alexander did not take any action because he was = afraid to=20 disturb his army still further.  

    The breaking point came with the = matter of=20 Limnus.  This Limnus, a Macedonian, conspired = to assassinate= =20 Alexander, and he tried to bring in Nicomachus, who refused to go = along. =20 Nicomachus confided = the=20 secret to his brother, and the two brothers went to Philotas and asked = to see=20 Alexander on a matter of the greatest importance.  Both of them = tried=20 again and again, but Philotas kept putting them = off=20 by telling them that Alexander was too busy. 

    So the two brothers went to someone = else, who=20 arranged = an=20 interview with Alexander.  The brothers told Alexander about = Limnus' conspiracy= , then=20 went on and told how Philotas had prevented them from warning him=20 earlier.  This enraged=20 Alexander.  He sent a soldier to bring Limnus in for = questioning. =20 When this soldier reported back that Limnus had died avoiding = arrest, = Alexander=20 became even more angry because he had lost all means of finding out = who else=20 was involved.<= /P>

    But Philotas' enemies told = Alexander that=20 certainly such an insignifi= cant=20 person as Limnus could not be the ringleader of=20 the conspiracy.  They suggested that interroga= tion=20 should start with those who apparently had such an interest in = preventing detection= . =20 Once they had Alexander's attention for this sort of insinuation<= /A>,=20 they went on to show a thousand reasons why Philotas should be suspected= . =20 They succeeded so well that Alexander ordered Philotas arrested = and=20 questioned under torture.  Although Philotas denied that he had = any part=20 in the conspiracy= ,=20 Alexander had him executed.  Alexander also sent assassins to=20 kill Philotas' father, Parmenio, who was second in command of the army = and had=20 been a loyal=20 friend of Alexander=92s father, King Philip.

    These proceedings made Alexander a = terror to = his=20 friends.  And soon afterwards, Alexander personally killed his = close=20 friend Clitus. 15=   =20 Alexander had received a present of fresh fruit from Greece, and, as = was his=20 custom, he invited some of his friends to come and share the fruit = with=20 him.  Among these was Clitus. 

    After everyone had had plenty to = drink,=20 including Clitus and Alexander, some of them started to sing a song = making fun=20 of some Macedonians who recently had been defeated in a battle with = the barbarians.=20   The older men were displeased, but Alexander and the younger = men=20 enjoyed it, and called on the singers to continue.&= nbsp;=20 Clitus remarked that it was not good to entertain the barbarians with = jokes=20 about Macedonians, especially when the subjects of the satire were = better men=20 than those who made fun of them, even if their luck had been = worse. 

    Alexander joked that Clitus was pleading = for=20 himself, giving cowardice= the=20 name of bad luck.  Clitus then got to his feet and said: "This = cowardice,=20 as you are pleased to call it, saved the life of the Son of God at the = battle=20 of Granicus.  Those poor Macedonians you laugh at have, by their = wounds=20 fighting for you, made you so great now that you disown = your father=20 Philip and call yourself the son of Ammon." 

    Stung by these words, Alexander = threatened=20 Clitus: "Do you think you are not going to be punished for those = words, which=20 you say to make the Macedonians rebel = against=20 me?"  Still Clitus would not shut up. =  "We=20 are punished enough already," he said, "if this is our reward for our = work,=20 and those men are lucky who did not live to see Macedonians have to = beg=20 Persians for access to = their=20 king, and to see Greeks beaten by barbarian rods." 16  =20 Alexander grabbed a spear and threw it, killing Clitus.

    All that night and the next day, = Alexander=20 cried bitterly,=20 until finally he ran out of tears and could only lie on the floor of = his=20 chamber and sigh.  His friends thought that this silence meant he = was in=20 danger, so they broke in. 17=   =20 But Alexander paid = no=20 attention until they brought Callisthenes, a close friend of = Aristotle, to=20 see him, along with another philosopher named Anaxarchus. 

    Callisthenes tried soothing moral = arguments,=20 but Alexander was not comforted.  Anaxarchus awoke Alexander from = his depression by=20 saying: "So there is Alexander the Great, who is feared by the whole = world.=20   Look at him lying on the ground, sobbing because he fears what = men=20 might say about him -- as if he himself should not give them law, and=20 establish the boundaries of justice and injustice.  He who = conquers is=20 the lord and master, not the slave, of the idle opinions of little=20 men."   With speeches like this, Anaxarchus comforted = Alexander but=20 corrupted = his=20 character, making him bolder to do wrong than he had been before. 18=20

    These two philosophers, Anaxarchus = and=20 Callisthenes, warred over the soul of Alexander.  The flatterers = and=20 parasites around Alexander already hated Callistenes because of his = popularity=20 with both the young soldiers and the old.  The old men admired=20 Callisthenes for his simple life and contentment= ,=20 and the young men for his eloquence= . =20 His detractors said=20 that Callisthenes seemed to have an attitude of superiority= . =20 When he was invited to a party, most of the time he would not = come.  If=20 he did, he would usually sit silently as if he disapproved of what was = going=20 on.

    One night Callisthenes was present = where a=20 large crowd had been invited to dine with Alexander.  When the = cup was=20 passed to Callisthenes, he was called upon to make an extempor= aneous=20 oration in = praise of the Macedonians.  Callisthenes spoke with such eloquence= that=20 everyone present gave him a standing = ovation=20 and threw flowers.  Alexander remarked that it was easy to be = eloquent on=20 such a good subject, and he gave Callisthenes a greater challenge: to = speak=20 about the faults of the Macedonians, so they might all learn to be = better in=20 the future. 

    It was truly said by Aristotle that = Callisthenes was a powerful speaker, but he had bad judgment. =20 Callisthenes did so well at describing the faults of the Macedonians = that they=20 all hated him from then on.  Some say that Callisthenes died in = prison=20 after seven months in chains; others say that he was hanged.

* * *

    Alexander wanted to invade India, = but his=20 soldiers were so burdened = with booty that = they=20 moved very slowly on the march.  One day, at dawn, after all of = the=20 wagons were loaded, Alexander set fire to his own and to those of his=20 friends.  Then he commanded the rest of the army to burn their = wagons=20 too.   By now, Alexander had become very severe and pitiless in = punishing=20 any disobedience.  Although a few were unhappy, most of the army = was glad=20 to see this barbaric baggage burn away so that they could be warriors=20 again.

    King Taxiles ruled a large area in=20 India.  When he heard that Alexander was coming, Taxiles did not = wait,=20 but went in person to meet him in peace.  "Why should we make war = on each=20 other," Taxiles said, "if the reason for your coming is not to rob us = of our=20 water and our food?  Those are the only things that a wise man = has no=20 choice but to fight for.  As for any other riches or possessions, = if I=20 have more than you I am ready to share.  But if fortune has been = better=20 to you than to me, then I have no objection to being in your debt." =

    These courteous= words=20 pleased Alexander, and he replied: "Do you think your kind words and = courteous=20 conduct will avoid a contest between us?  No, I will not let you = off so=20 easily.  I will do battle with you on these terms: no matter how = much you=20 give me, I will give more in return."   Thereupon Taxiles made = many fine=20 presents to Alexander, but Alexander responded with presents of even = greater=20 value and topped them off with a thousand talents = in gold=20 coins.  This generosity displeased Alexander's old friends but = won the=20 hearts of many of the Indians.

    King Porus, however, refused to = submit, and=20 he took up a position to prevent Alexander from crossing the Hydaspes=20 River.  Porus was a huge man, and when mounted on his war = elephant he=20 looked in the same proportion as an ordinary man on a horse.  = After a=20 long fight, Alexander won the victory, and Porus came to him as a=20 prisoner.  Alexander asked him how he expected to be treated, and = Porus=20 replied: "As a king."  When Alexander asked a second time, Porus=20 explained that in those words was included everything that a man could = possibly want.   Alexander not only allowed Porus to keep his = kingdom as=20 a satrap, but = he=20 also gave him more territory.

    This was a costly victory, = however. =20 Many Macedonians died, and so did Alexander's old war horse, = Bucephalus. =20 This grieved Alexander so much that it seemed as though he had lost an = old=20 friend.  On that spot he ordered a city to be built, named = Bucephalia.=20

    Such a difficult victory over only = 22,000=20 Indians [May 326 B.C.] took the edge off the courage of the = Macedonians. =20 They had no enthusiasm for=20 Alexander's proposed = crossing=20 of the Ganges, a river said to be four miles wide and six hundred feet = deep,=20 to encounter= =20 an army on the other side consisting=20 of 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 6,000 war = elephants.  Alexander was so angry at their reluctance that=20 he shut himself up in his tent, saying that if they would not cross = the=20 Ganges, he owed them no thanks for anything they had done so far. =  But=20 finally the persuasions of his friends, and the pleas of = his=20 soldiers, got Alexander to agree to turn back.

    To exaggerate his=20 reputation, Alexander left bridles and armor that were much bigger = than=20 normal, and huge altars to = the=20 gods.  On a flotilla = of rafts=20 and barges, Alexander's army floated down the Indus River. 

    Along the way, they stopped to take = some=20 fortified cities, and at one of them Alexander came very close to = losing his=20 life.  Alexander was the first one up the ladders onto the wall = of the=20 city of the Mallians, and then he jumped down into the town with only = two of=20 his guards behind him. Before the rest of the Macedonians could catch = up and save=20 him, Alexander had taken an arrow in the ribs and had been knocked = dizzy by a=20 club.  He was unconscious when they carried him away, and he = fainted when=20 the doctors cut out the arrow.  Rumors spread that Alexander was = dead.=20

* * *

    While in India, Alexander took ten = of the=20 Brahmins 19= =20  prisoner.  These men had a great reputation for=20 intelligence, so Alexander decided to give them a test.  He = announced=20 that the one who gave the worst answer would be the first to die, and = he made=20 the oldest Brahmin the judge of the competition.

    Which are more numerous, Alexander = asked the=20 first one, the living or the dead?  "The living," said the = Brahmin,=20 "because the dead no longer count."

    Which produces more creatures, the = sea or the=20 land? Alexander asked the second.  "The land," was his answer, = "because=20 the sea is only a part of it."

    The third was asked which animal = was the=20 smartest of all, and the Brahmin replied: "The one we have not found = yet."=20

    Alexander asked the fourth what = argument he=20 had used to stir up the Indians to fight, and he answered:  "Only = that=20 one should either live nobly or die nobly."

    Which is older: day or night? was = Alexander's=20 question to the fifth, and the answer he got was:  "Day is older, = by one=20 day at least."  When he saw that Alexander was not satisfied with = this=20 answer, the Brahmin added: "Strange questions get strange answers." =

    What should a man do to make = himself loved?=20 asked Alexander, and the sixth Brahmin replied: "Be powerful without = being=20 frightening."

    What does a man have to do to = become a god?=20 he asked the seventh, who responded: "Do what is impossible for a = man."

    The question to the eighth was = whether death=20 or life was stronger, and his answer: "Life is stronger than death, = because it=20 bears so many miseries."

    The ninth Brahmin was asked how = long it was=20 proper for a man to live, and he said: "Until it seems better to die." =

    Then Alexander turned to the judge, = who=20 decided that each one had answered worse than another.  "You will = die=20 first, then, for giving such a decision," said Alexander.  "Not = so,=20 mighty king," said the Brahmin, "if you want to remain a man = of your=20 word.  You said that you would kill first the one who made = the worst=20 answer."  Alexander gave all of the Brahmins presents and set = them free,=20 even though they had persuaded = the=20 Indians to fight him.

* * *

    Alexander's voyage down the Indus = took seven=20 months.   When he finally arrived at the Indian Ocean, he decided = not to=20 take the army home by ship but to march them through the Gedrosian = Desert. 20= =20    After sixty miserable days, they arrived at Gedrosia, = where they=20 finally found enough to eat and drink.  Many died in that desert: = out of=20 the 120,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry that Alexander took with him = into=20 India, only one in four came back.

    The news about the difficulties he = had in=20 India, his brush with death, and the huge attrition= of his=20 army in the desert, all made the conquered nations think of = revolution. =20 The satraps and commanders he had left in the provinces thought that = now they=20 could do anything they wanted.  Even in Macedonia, Alexander's = mother had=20 deposed = the man=20 Alexander had left in charge.  But still Alexander wanted to go = on to new=20 adventures.  This time, he proposed to sail around Africa to the = Pillars=20 of Hercules [Gibraltar].

    The tomb of Cyrus had been looted = by one of=20 the Macedonians, and for this Alexander ordered the grave-robber=20 executed.  The inscription= on=20 the tomb was: "Whoever you are, and wherever you come from (for I know = that=20 you will come), I am Cyrus, the founder of the Persian Empire.  = Please=20 let me keep this dirt that covers my corpse."  It greatly = disturbed=20 Alexander to see by this example how fragile = human fame=20 could be.

    At the same time, Calanus (one of = the=20 Brahmins who had accompanied Alexander back from India) asked that a = funeral=20 pyre be = built for=20 him.   Once everything was ready, Calanus did the customary = ceremonies=20 for a funeral, then said goodbye to his Macedonian friends.  He = told them=20 to tell Alexander that Calanus would be seeing him in Babylon = soon.  Then=20 he climbed on the pyre, lit it, and stayed perfectly still until he = was ashes.=20

    That night, Alexander held a = banquet for a=20 large number of his friends and officers, and he offered a prize for = the man=20 who could drink the most wine.  Promachus drank twelve quarts and = got the=20 prize, but three days later he died.  Forty-one others also died = from=20 this debauch.

* * *

    At Susa [324 B.C.], Alexander took = Statira,=20 the daughter of King Darius, as another wife. 21= =20   At the same time, he married the best-bred ladies of Persia to = his=20 friends.   These marriages were jointly celebrated by a = magnificent=20 festival for nine thousand guests, each of whom got a gold = wine-cup. =20 Alexander also paid off all of the debts of his soldiers, which took = 10,000 talents. =

    When he had left for India, = Alexander had put=20 30,000 Persian boys into Greek military training, and by now they had=20 developed into strong and expert fighters.  They put on a = demonstration=20 of their military exercises, which pleased him, but depressed the = Macedonians,=20 who now believed that Alexander had no more use for them.

    When Alexander allowed some of the = sick and=20 wounded to return to Macedonia, the other Greeks asked to leave = too. =20 They added that Alexander no longer needed their services, now that he = had=20 such a fine bunch of Persian dancing boys, with which he could go on = to=20 conquer the world.  This infuriated=20 Alexander, and after a long and abusive tirade he = fired all=20 of his guards and replaced them with Persians.  Not long = afterwards, the=20 Greeks repented.&nb= sp;=20 They stood outside Alexander's tent for two days and nights until he = finally=20 relented = and=20 sent them back with rewards for their services.

    Alexander continued on to Ecbatana, = where he=20 took care of some business of his empire and then relaxed and enjoyed = himself=20 with public spectacles.  Three thousand actors and artists had = just=20 arrived from Greece to amuse him.  But Alexander's happiness did = not last=20 long, because his best friend, Hephaestion, died of a fever.

    Alexander's grief over Hephaestion = went=20 beyond all reasonable bounds.  He crucified the doctor who had = treated=20 Hephaestion. 22=   =20 He ordered all of the manes and tails of the animals in his army to be = cut off=20 as a sign of mourning, and he tore down the walls of the cities = nearby. =20 He banned all music.  Then he went into the country of the = Cossaeans and=20 for no reason massacred = the=20 entire nation.

    The tomb of Hephaestion was to be a = memorial=20 of unprecedented= =20 magnificence, and Alexander spent most of his time going over the = plans with=20 his architects.  On his way to Babylon, the local fortune-tellers = prophesied that he would die if he entered the city.  But = Alexander paid=20 no attention.  As he came to the walls, he saw some crows = fighting with=20 each other, and some fell near him.   Even this omen could = not deter=20 Alexander from entering Babylon.

    Other strange omens, however, did = get=20 Alexander's attention.  A donkey kicked his biggest lion to = death. =20 And one day there was a man sitting on Alexander's throne in a = trance. =20 After this, Alexander lost his confidence in the gods and in his=20 friends.  Once he allowed fears of supernatural influence to take = root in=20 his mind, he became so easily frightened that the smallest event took = on=20 enormous significance.  Crowds of fortune-tellers and priests = infested=20 his court.

    Contempt of divine power makes a = man=20 miserable, but, on the other hand, so does superstition.  Like = water, it=20 seeps in to fill the depressed mind with fear and foolish = notions. =20 Alexander drank heavily, and he caught a fever. After suffering for = twelve=20 days, he died in Babylon [June 10, 323 B.C.]. 23

Go to Life of=20 Phocion

NOTES:

1. =     =20 The temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the = ancient=20 world.

2.     Aristotle = was the pupil=20 of Plato and the most famous philosopher of his time.  He left = behind a=20 huge body of work on logic, political theory, and natural science.

3.     The = Iliad=20 has always been a favorite of warriors.  The subject is a few = weeks in=20 the ninth year of the siege of Troy, when Achilles, a warrior as = strong and=20 grand as Alexander, lost his best friend in battle and took ferocious = revenge=20 on the enemy.  Recent archeological discoveries have revealed = that Troy=20 really did exist and that it was as large as Homer described it.

4.     At the = Battle of=20 Chaeronea (338 B.C.), King Philip of Macedonia defeated Athens and its = allies=20 and became the boss of Greece.  Two years later, however, Philip = was=20 assassinated.

5.     The Sacred = Band in the=20 army of Thebes was an elite unit of 300 picked warriors.  See the = life of=20 Pelopidas.

6.     Plutarch's = life of=20 Demosthenes has not been included in this collection.

7.     A = panhellenic war=20 against the Persians had been a dream for some time.  Xenophon = and the=20 Ten Thousand (mercenaries) showed how easy it would be, and what = incredible=20 wealth was there.  Agesilaus (see the life of Agesilaus) had easy = success=20 until he was called home to fight wars in Greece.   However, it = took a=20 Macedonian to pull the Greeks together and get them to stop fighting=20 themselves.

8.     Troy=20 was the site of the Trojan War (circa 1250 B.C.), where Alexander's = ancestor,=20 the great Achilles, grandson of Aeacus, did the deeds immortalized = in=20 the Iliad by Homer. 

The story of the Trojan War may be found in = the=20 Iliad of Homer, the=20 Metamorphoses of Ovid, and the=20 Aeneid of Virgil.   Briefly:

Eris, the goddess of discord, was angry because she = alone=20 among all of the gods had not been invited to the wedding of Peleus = (the=20 father of Achilles) and Thetis (a sea goddess).  She showed up = anyway=20 and threw in a golden apple, inscribed with the words: "To the most=20 attractive."  Three goddesses squabbled over the golden apple: = Hera=20 (Juno), the queen of the gods, Aphrodite (Venus), the goddess of = love, and=20 Athena (Minerva), the goddess of wisdom.  To settle the = argument, the=20 three goddesses agreed to allow some mortal man to make the judgment = and=20 award the apple.  The arbitrator selected was Paris, a young = prince of=20 Troy, a city that was a major power because it dominated the channel = linking=20 trade between the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea. =

The three goddesses appeared to Paris and applied = their=20 persuasions.  Hera offered wealth and power beyond any man in = the=20 world.  Athena offered wisdom.  But Aphrodite offered what = this=20 young man could not resist: the most beautiful woman in the = world. =20 This is essentially the same choice any young man must make: love, = money, or=20 wisdom.  The judgment of Paris was for Aphrodite, and Helen was = his=20 prize.  She happened to be married at the time,=20 however.

Paris sailed off to Sparta and was received as a = guest of=20 Menelaus, its king, who was Helen's husband.  Paris repaid the = kindness=20 of his host by stealing his wife and much loot, which he took back = to=20 Troy.  Menelaus' brother was Agamemnon, the King of Mycenae, = who=20 collected a large army to punish Paris and Troy. =

After a ten-year siege, Troy was taken by the = stratagem of the=20 Trojan Horse.  The Greeks built a huge horse of wood, too big = to fit=20 through the gates of Troy, then left this strange monument behind = and=20 pretended to sail home.   Inside the horse were some of the = best Greek=20 warriors.  Despite the warnings of Cassandra, the Trojans were=20 completely fooled, and they made a passage through their walls, = dragged the=20 horse inside, and then everyone had a victory party.  Late that = night,=20 as the Trojans were sleeping off their debauch, the Greeks inside = the horse=20 came out and opened the gates.  The rest of the Greeks, who had = turned=20 back and landed again, entered and sacked the city. =

That was the end of the Trojans, but Aeneas, one of = the=20 princes of their allies, escaped from the slaughter with some = companions and=20 founded Rome.   Aeneas was the son of Aphrodite (Venus) and a=20 descendant of the original king of Troy. =

9.     Achilles' = best friend=20 was Patroclus, who borrowed Achilles' armor to turn back the Trojans = and was=20 killed by Hector when he carried his victory too far.  Achilles'=20 extravagant grief over the loss of his friend was imitated later by = Alexander=20 when he lost Hephaestion.  Homer, of course, was the poet = referred to by=20 Alexander.

10.     Arrian = tells us that=20 the Persians were putting up a good fight until Darius ran.  Then = they=20 all panicked, and trampled each other trying to escape in the narrow = mountain=20 passes.  Alexander's losses were very light, only 450 killed and = 4,500=20 wounded, including Alexander, who got a sword cut on his thigh.  = Arrian=20 is the leading ancient biographer of Alexander, and he wrote shortly = after=20 Plutarch.  His account is a real history, and therefore is much = more=20 complete than Plutarch's.

11.     Ammon was = a ram with=20 curved horns, supposed to be an Egyptian form of Jupiter.  After = spying=20 on Olympias and noticing a snake in her bed, King Philip had consulted = the=20 oracle of Apollo at Delphi for the meaning of this strange = sight.  The=20 oracle replied that the snake was a form of Ammon -- Greek gods were = capable=20 of assuming different shapes.  Olympias told Alexander the secret = that=20 Ammon was his real father, not Philip.

12.     Arrian = tells us that=20 Darius, who was expecting an attack that night, kept his men standing = in=20 formation all night, so that by the next day his army was exhausted. =

13.     Darius = lost even=20 though he outnumbered Alexander by 20 to 1.

14.     Arrian = tells us that=20 Alexander introduced the Persian custom of prostration in his court, = and even=20 Macedonians were expected to grovel on the floor when they saw = him. =20 Although it was optional for Macedonians, Alexander clearly was more = pleased=20 with those that did than those that did not.  It was hard for him = to have=20 a consistent policy since he had to be a god to the barbarians and a = friend to=20 the Macedonians.

15.     Clitus = was the=20 brother of Alexander's nursemaid, a senior commander under Philip, and = the=20 commander of the Royal Squadron of Alexander's cavalry.  He had = saved=20 Alexander's life at the Battle of the Granicus River.  Clitus was = one of=20 the Macedonian commanders that most disliked the change in Alexander = from=20 warrior king to barbarian megalomaniac.  This incident took place = in=20 Marakanda, 328 B.C.

16.     Alexander = had police=20 recruited from the local population.

17.     Alexander = tried to=20 kill himself with the same spear he used on Clitus, once he saw what = he had=20 done.  He called himself the murderer of his friends, which was a = fact.

18.     Alexander = cried when=20 he heard Anaxarchus talk about the infinite number of worlds in the=20 universe.  One of Alexander's friends asked him what was the = matter, and=20 he replied: "There are so many worlds, and I have not yet conquered = even=20 one."  This anecdote comes from Plutarch's essay in the=20 Moralia entitled " On Contentment of the Mind."

19.     Brahmins = were the=20 priests and scholars of India, the highest of the four castes in the = Vedic=20 social order.  The other castes were the soldiers, the merchants, = and the=20 laborers.  By the time Alexander came to India, there was already = a very=20 ancient and well-developed civilization.   Buddha lived = approximately two=20 hundred years before Alexander, and before Buddha there was a long = tradition=20 of Vedic culture and institutions in India.

20.     Arrian = tells us that=20 the reason Alexander wanted to try this desert crossing was that no = one had=20 ever brought an army through there before.  He knew of the = difficulties=20 they would encounter.  The loot from their expedition had to be = left=20 behind for lack of animals to carry it, since most of the animals died = of=20 thirst.  Anyone who could not keep up was left behind to = die.  Then=20 when they finally found a stream of water and camped beside it, = monsoon rains=20 caused a sudden flood that drowned all of the women and children and = all of=20 the surviving animals, and only a few of the soldiers managed to = escape=20 drowning in the desert.  This took place in 325 B.C.

21.     Great men = in the=20 ancient world usually were polygamous.  Once Alexander was dead, = however,=20 Roxane had her rival killed.  She and Alexander's baby were = murdered=20 later by Cassander in Macedonia.

22.     This = doctor was not=20 at fault, except that he had left his patient and gone to see a = play. =20 Hephaestion took that opportunity to break the diet that the doctor = had=20 prescribed, and he ate a whole chicken and drank a lot of wine.  = This=20 aggravated his fever, and soon he died.

23.    "If the rule of = due measure=20 is neglected, and great power is put into things too small -- such as = sails on=20 ships, food in bodies, or authority to souls -- then there is = disaster. =20 No mortal, when young and irresponsible, will ever be able to stand in = the=20 highest ruling position on Earth without his mind being filled with=20 foolishness, earning him the detestation of even his closest = friends. =20 When this happens, it quickly ruins the soul itself and obliterates = all of its=20 power."  Plato, Laws, III,=20 691.

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Here are 1065 useful words and phrases in = modern American=20 business English.  Clicking on the highlighted words in the text = will=20 display their definition in this window.  These words have been = chosen=20 with two classes of students in mind: (1) those wishing to improve = their SAT=20 verbal score, and (2) adult students of English as a second language, = who=20 would prefer a serious and classic text and convenient = definitions. =20 Studying the words in context, and examining the brief definitions and = examples provided in this list, will add significantly to the = student's real=20 understanding of proper usage. 

If you are still reading, you need to click on = the down=20 arrow above this frame (i.e. the one that = controls=20 the main frame above) to scroll through the table of = contents.

abate (a bate')
Make = less; die=20 down. 
Example: The city passed a law to=20 abate the noise coming from factories.

abducted
Kidnapped; = carried away=20 a person by force.

abet (a=20 bet')
Assist; help out, especially in doing = something=20 bad. 
Example:  Nixon had a staff to=20 abet his crimes.

abide (a byd')
Tolerate;=20 stand.  In archaic usage, abide means to = live=20 there, and the home where one abides is called an=20 abode.

abolish
Wipe out by decree; = annul.

abroad (a brod')
Outside = of your=20 own country.

abrogate (ab' ro = gate)
Cancel by=20 an official act.

abscond (ab skond')
Run = off with=20 the money.

absent
Not there; = missing. =20

absolute
Pure; = total.

absurd (ab serd')
Makes = no sense;=20 stupid; goofy.

abundant
Plentiful; = there's=20 lots of it.

abuse (ab yous') = Noun.
Bad=20 treatment.  As a verb, abuse is pronounced = (ab=20 youz').

access
Permission to = visit;=20 admittance.

account
Story.

accounting
What = happened to=20 the money.  People who can understand such statements are = called=20 accountants.

accuse (ak yuze')
Blame; = say=20 someone did something bad.

acknowledge =
Recognize; admit=20 to be true.

acquaintance
Someone you=20 know slightly, less than a friend.

acquire (a = qwire')
Get.

acquitted
Found to be = not=20 guilty of the crime charged.

adept (a dept')
Good at = something;=20 skilled.

adhere (ad here')
Stick = to.

adjacent (a jay' = sent)
Next to=20 each other; contiguous.

adjust (a = just')
Improve; change;=20 fix.

admit
Allow; confess to = be=20 true.

adorn (a dorn')
Decorate; = dress=20 up.

adversary (ad' ver = sary)
Enemy;=20 opponent.

adversity
When the = going gets=20 tough.

advocated
Spoke in = favor=20 of.

affability (af a bil' i = ty)
Genteel good humor; jolly but not overbearing behavior.  = The=20 fine line between affability (which is pleasant) = and=20 jocularity (which is irritating) is most important = to=20 discover.

affection
Kind = feelings.

affinity (a fin' i=20 ty)
Attraction.

afford
Give. =20
Example:  The judge afforded him = an=20 opportunity to tell his side of the story. =20
    Afford also means to be able = to=20 spend.  Example:  Most college students can't=20 afford to spend more than $500 a month on rent.

affront (a = frunt')
Defiant=20 insult.

aggravate (ag' ra = vate)
Make=20 worse, or more serious. 
Example:  Bill = Clinton=20 aggravated his crimes by his efforts to silence his = accusers.

aggressor
The one who = starts=20 the fight.

aghast (a = gast')
Extremely=20 astonished and horrified; a state of bewilderment usually expressed = with=20 open mouth and bugged eyes.

agitated
Disturbed; = stirred=20 up.

agonize over
Be = in fearful=20 suspense.

agreeable
Friendly; = in=20 harmony.

alacrity (a lak' ri=20 ty)
Willingness and enthusiasm; energetic = joy.

all-out
A major effort, = using all=20 available resources.

allays (a layz')
Tones = down;=20 softens.

allegiance
Being a = friend or=20 ally; loyalty.

alliance (a ly'=20 ans)
Partnership; coalition; team.  A relationship based on = mutual=20 commitments to defend each other's interests.  An = ally=20 (al' eye) is your partner in this relationship.

aloof (a loof')
Like you = aren't=20 interested in being there; superior and detached in attitude, like a = cat=20 more than like a dog.

altar
Raised place for = performing=20 ritual killings.

ambiguous (am big' yoo=20 us)
Vague; unclear because it could mean two = things.   =20
An ambiguity (am big yoo' i ty) is vague spot = in a=20 text.

ambitious (am bish' = us)
Greedy;=20 hungry for more power.

ambivalence (am biv' a = lence)
The state of not being able to decide if you like it more = than you=20 hate it.

ambush (am' = bush)
Surprise attack=20 out of hiding.

anarchy (an' er = ky)
Nobody's in=20 charge; freedom for the criminals.

ancestors
Forefathers; prior=20 generations of your family.

animus (an' i = mus)
Strong dislike;=20 hostile attitude.

annotated (an' o ta = ted)
With=20 additional notes to the text, such as this edition of Plutarch's=20 Lives.  Example:  Annotated = statutes are=20 printed laws supplemented with references to related judicial = decisions.

annulled (a = nuld')
Cancelled;=20 made as if it never happened.

anomalous (a nom' a = lus)
Out of=20 place; shouldn't be there.  An anomaly is = something=20 anomalous, i.e. something you don't expect to find=20 there.

antagonist (an tag' o=20 nist)
Opponent; enemy.

anti- (an' ty)
Against; = opposed=20 to.

anxious (ank' = shus)
Worried;=20 filled with anxiety.

ape  = Verb.
Imitate=20 without understanding, the way monkeys do.

apologize (a pol' o = gize)
Say=20 that you are sorry for what you have done; offer excuses for = errors.

appease (a peez')
Give = them what=20 they want so they will stop making trouble.

aptitude (ap' ti = tude)
Promise;=20 probability of success at learning.

arbitrarily (ar bi = trer' i=20 ly)
For no good reason; from a whim of power.

arbitrate (ar' bi trate) = Verb.
Decide a dispute by a third party, whose decision = the=20 disputants agree to follow.   This third party is called the=20 arbitrator, and the dispute resolution process is = called=20 arbitration. 

arch-enemy
Worst = enemy;=20 nemesis.

archer
Soldier who = shoots=20 arrows.

arete (ah' re = tay)
Arete,=20 in English, means something like "virtue" and "excellence" and all = of the=20 qualities that together make up good character.  The knightly = code of=20 chivalry is similar to the Greek idea of = arete, but=20 to the Greeks the concept had more metaphysical = significance.

arguably (ar' gyu a bly)
It would = not be=20 unreasonable to think so; a good advocate could think up some = plausible=20 argument to support this position; unbiased and reasonable people = would not=20 laugh if you said this.

aristocracy (ar is = tok' ra=20 see)
The ruling class, or, as a political system, "rule of the = best" (its=20 literal meaning in Greek).  Who these "best" are is usually = determined=20 by which family they happen to be born in.

arrange
Set up; = organize.

arrest (a = rest')
Stop.

arrogant (ar' o = gant)
Pushy;=20 bossy.  The opposite of humble.

art
A body of technical = knowledge or=20 skill.  Note that the term is not limited to painting or = sculpture,=20 which is properly called "fine art."

artificial
Not = natural; done=20 by means of technology.

artisan (ar' ti = zan)
One who=20 makes beautiful things, for example, a jeweler or a craftsman in = wood.

ashamed (a = shaymd')
Embarrassed;=20 wish you were dead. 
Example:  The fact that = he was=20 not ashamed proved that he had no sense of honor, = and =20 therefore could not be trusted with the office of President.

assailant (a say'=20 lant)
Attacker; one who is trying to harm somebody.

assassinate (a sas' in = ate)
Murder a public official.

assault
Attack. =20
Example: The crime of assault is = complete even=20 if no blow is struck (that's battery), so long as the victim was = scared by=20 the attack.

assemble
Gather = together.

assume
Suppose that it's = true.

assurance (a shur'=20 ance)
Guarantee; confidence.

astonishing (as ton' = ish=20 ing)
Incredible; amazing.

at stake
Up for = grabs; the=20 prize for the winner; at risk.

atrocity (a tross' si = ty)
Cruel=20 and violent act; an outrage.  Atrocious (a = tro' shus)=20 means outrageously bad.  Example:  His table = manners are=20 atrocious.

attain
Achieve.

attendant
Servant.

attribute (at' tri = bute) =20 Noun.
A quality or characteristic.  Note the = difference=20 in how this word is pronounced from when it is used as a verb. =

attribute  (a = trib' ute)=20 Verb.
Say it came from that = source.
Example: =20 The painting was attributed to Rembrandt.

attrition
Loss in=20 numbers.
Example:  The attrition = rate for=20 first year law students is 35%.

auctioned
Sold to the = highest=20 bidder at an auction, or public bidding procedure.

austere (os = teer')
Spartan;=20 serious and disciplined; not ornamented; not luxurious.  The = quality of=20 being austere is called austerity = (os ter'=20 i ty).

authority
The power = and right=20 to command. 

avenge (a venge')
Get = even for;=20 take revenge.

avoid
Steer clear of; = dodge;=20 evade.

awed  (awd)
Impressed = extremely, to the point of amazement.  You are = awed by=20 something awesome.

awkward (ok' werd)
Not = graceful;=20 embarrassing; clumsy. =20 =             &= nbsp;           &n= bsp;           &nb= sp;   =20 100

back out
Withdraw = from a=20 commitment; retreat.
Example:  When prices rose, = they tried=20 to back out of the deal.

backed up = by
Supported=20 by.

backing
Supporting; on = the side=20 of.

ballast (bal' = est)
Additional=20 weight in the bottom of a ship, put there for the purpose of = lowering its=20 center of gravity, thereby preventing the ship from tipping = over.

ban
Prohibit.

banish
Order someone to = leave and=20 not ever come back.

bankrupt
When your = debts exceed=20 your assets; broke.

banquet (bank' = wet)
Dinner party=20 for a large group.