RADIOACTIVE HALOS IN A RADIOCHRONOLOGICAL AND = COSMOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

From: Subject: =?iso-8859-1?Q?RADIOACTIVE_HA?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?LOS_IN_A_RADIO?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?CHRONOLOGICAL_?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?AND_COSMOLOGIC?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?AL_PERSPECTIVE?= Date: Tue, 2 Mar 2004 10:09:23 -0500 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_02DB_01C4003E.6F827710"; type="text/html" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V5.00.3314.1001 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_02DB_01C4003E.6F827710 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: =?iso-8859-1?B?aHR0cDovL3d3dy5oYWw=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?b3MuY29tL2Jvb2swMS8=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?Ym9vay5odG0=?= RADIOACTIVE HALOS IN A RADIOCHRONOLOGICAL AND = COSMOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

RADIOACTIVE HALOS IN A RADIOCHRONOLOGICAL AND = COSMOLOGICAL=20 PERSPECTIVE
Robert V. Gentry*
Columbia Union College
Takoma = Park,=20 Maryland 20012

If the earth was created, it is axiomatic that created = (primordial)=20 rocks must now exist on the earth, and if there was a Flood there = must now=20 exist sedimentary rocks and other evidences of that event. But, if = the=20 general uniformitarian principle is correct, the universe evolved = to its=20 present state only by the unvarying action of known physical laws = and all=20 natural phenomena must fit into the evolutionary mosaic. If this=20 fundamental principle is wrong, all the pieces in the evolutionary = mosaic=20 become unglued. Evidence that something is drastically wrong comes = from=20 the fact that this basic evolutionary premise has failed to = provide a=20 verifiable explanation for the widespread occurrence of Po halos = in=20 Precambrian granites, a phenomena which I suggest are in situ = evidences=20 that those rocks were created almost instantaneously in accord = with Psalm=20 33:6,9: "By the word of the Lord were the heavens made; and all = the host=20 of them by the breath of his mouth. For he spake, and it was done; = he=20 commanded, and it stood fast." I have challenged my colleagues to=20 synthesize a piece of granite with ²¹⁸Po halos as a = means of=20 falsifying this interpretation, but have not received a response. = It is=20 logical that this synthesis should be possible if the = uniformitarian=20 principle is true. Underdeveloped U halos in coalified wood having = high=20 U/Pb ratios are cited evidences for a Flood-related recent (within = the=20 past few thousand years) emplacement of geological formations = thought to=20 be more than 100,000,000 years old. Results of differential He = analyses of=20 zircons taken from deep granite cores are evidence for a recently = created,=20 several-thousand-year-age of the earth. A creation model with = three=20 singularities, involving events beyond explanation by known = physical laws,=20 is proposed to account for these evidences. The first singularity = is the=20 ex nihilo creation of our galaxy nearly 6000 years ago. = Finally, a=20 new model for the structure of the universe is proposed based on = the idea=20 that all galaxies, including the Milky Way, are revolving about = the Center=20 of the universe, which from Psalm 103:19 I equate with the fixed = location=20 of God's throne. This model requires an absolute reference frame = in the=20 universe whereas modern Big Bang cosmology mandates there is no = Center=20 (the Cosmological Principle) and no absolute reference frame (the = theory=20 of relativity). The notion of the solar system through the cosmic=20 microwave radiation is cited as unequivocal evidence for the = existence of=20 an absolute reference frame.

Figure 1. The scale for all photomicrographs is 1 cm =3D 25 = :m, except for (h=92) and (r=92), = which are=20 enlargements of (h) and (r). (a) Schematic drawing of = ²³⁸U halo=20 with radii proportional to ranges of alpha particles in air. (b) = Schematic=20 of ^21OPo halo. (e) Coloration band formed in mica by = 7.7-MeV=20 ⁴He ions. Arrow shows direction of beam penetration. = (f) A=20 ²³⁸U halo in biotite formed by sequential alpha decay = of the=20 ²³⁸U decay series. (g) Embryonic ²³⁸U halo = in=20 fluorite with only two rings developed. (h) Normally developed=20 ²³⁸U halo in fluorite with nearly all rings visible. = (h') Same=20 halo as in (h) but at higher magnification. (i) Well developed=20 ²³⁸U halo in fluorite with slightly blurred rings. (j)=20 Overexposed ²³⁸U halo in fluorite, showing inner ring=20 obliteration. (k) Two overexposed ²³⁸U halos in = fluorite,=20 showing outer ring reversal effects. (m) Second-stage reversal in = a=20 ²³⁸U halo in fluorite. The ring sizes are unrelated to=20 ²³⁸U alpha particle ranges. (n) Three ^21OPo = halos of=20 light, medium, and very dark coloration in biotite. Note the = difference in=20 radius. (o) Three ²¹⁰Po halos of varying degrees of = coloration=20 in fluorite. (p) A ²¹⁴Po halo in biotite. (q) Two=20 ²¹⁸Po halos in biotite. (r) Two ²¹⁸Po halos = in=20 fluorite. (r') Same halos as in (r) but at higher magnification.=20 (Reprinted from ref. (2) by permission of the AAAS.)

URANIUM AND THORIUM RADIOHALOS IN = MINERALS

A radioactive halo is generally defined as any = type of=20 discolored, radiation-damaged region within a mineral and usually = results=20 from either alpha or, more rarely, beta emission from a central=20 radioactive inclusion. When the central inclusions, or = radiocenters, are=20 small (1 :m), the U and Th = daughter=20 alpha emitters produce a series of discolored concentric spheres, = which in=20 thin section appear microscopically as concentric rings whose = radii=20 correspond to the ranges of the various alpha emitters in the = mineral.

Ordinary radiohalos are herein defined as those = which=20 initiate with ²³⁸U and/or ²³²Th alpha decay = (1),=20 irrespective of whether the actual U or Th halo closely matches = the=20 respective idealized alpha decay patterns. In a few instances the = match is=20 very good.

Compare, for example, the idealized U halo ring = pattern=20 in Fig. 1a with the well developed U halos in biotite (Fig. 1f) = and=20 fluorite (Fig. 1h,h'); these halos have ring sizes that agree very = well=20 (1,2) with the ⁴He ion accelerator-induced coloration = bands in=20 these minerals (see Table 1). In general a halo ring can be = assigned to a=20 definite alpha emitter with confidence only when the halo = radiocenter is=20 about 1:m in size.

In other cases, however, such as the halos in = fluorite=20 (1,2) shown in Fig. 1(g, i-m), much work was required before these = halos=20 could be reliably associated with U alpha decay (2). As explained=20 elsewhere (2), reversal effects accompanying extreme radiation = damage=20 caused the appearance of rings that could not be associated with = definite=20 alpha emitters of the U decay chain. Thus some halos may exhibit a = ring=20 structure different from the idealized U and/or Th alpha decay = patterns=20 because of reversal effects. And even though most other halos = exhibit=20 blurred ring structures due to the large size of the inclusions,=20 nevertheless the outer dimensions allow them to be classified as U = and/or=20 Th types.

Modern analytical techniques such as Scanning = Electron=20 Microscope X Ray Fluo-resence (SEMXRF) and Ion Microprobe Mass=20 Spectrometry (IMMA) methods have been utilized to show that U and = Th and=20 their respective end-product isotopes of Pb are contained within = the U and=20 Th halo radiocenters. As is noted shortly, these modern analytical = techniques have proved quite valuable in demonstrating that Po = halo=20 radiocenters in minerals contain little or no U or Th, which is in = direct=20 contrast to the abundance of these elements detected in the U = and/or Th=20 halo radiocenters (2,3).

RADIOACTIVE HALOS AND THE QUESTION OF INVARIANT = DECAY=20 RATES

A most important question pertaining to the=20 evolution/creation issue is whether radioactive decay rates have = remained=20 invariant during the course of earth history. If they have,=20 geochronologists are justified in interpreting various = parent/daughter=20 isotope ratios found in undisturbed rocks in terms of elapsed = time. If on=20 the other hand there have been periods in earth history where the = decay=20 rate was higher (i. e., during a singularity), then in general the = isotope=20 ratios in rocks would not reflect elapsed time except in the = specific case=20 where secondary rocks or substances containing only the parent=20 radio-nuclide formed at the end of the most recent singularity. = The=20 practical significance of this last statement will be evident in = the=20 discussion of the secondary, U halos found in coalified wood = specimens=20 from the Colorado Plateau.

Even though most of Joly's (4) measurements of = U and Th=20 halos showed their radii were about the sizes expected from the = alpha=20 decay energies of the U and Th decay chains, nevertheless he = claimed there=20 were slight discrepancies which raised questions about whether the = radioactive decay rate had been constant over geological time. His = result=20 was not confirmed however by later halo radii measurements (5-10), = which=20 agreed to within experimental error with the theoretical sizes. To = eliminate any uncertainty about this correspondence I irradiated = specimens=20 of various minerals with He ion beams of varying energies to = produce=20 different size coloration bands whose widths corresponded to the = various=20 alpha energies of the U decay chain. The results of these = experiments,=20 presented in Table 1, show there is excellent agreement between = the U and=20 Th halo radii and equivalent He ion produced penetration depths = (2).

The basis for thinking that standard size U and = Th halos=20 imply an invariant decay rate throughout geological time proceeds = from the=20 quantum mechanical treatment of alpha decay, which in general = shows that=20 the probability for alpha decay for a given nuclide is dependent = on the=20 energy with which the alpha particle is emitted from the nucleus. = The=20 argument is that if the decay rate had varied in the past, then = the U and=20 Th halo rings would be of different size now because the energies = of the=20 alpha particles would have been different during the period of = change.=20 This argument assumes that a change in the decay rate must = necessarily be=20 explainable by quantum mechanics, which is of course an integral = part of=20 the uniformitarian framework. Thus, the usual proof of decay rate=20 invariance based on standard size U and Th halos is nothing more = than a=20 circular argument which assumes the general uniformitarian = principle is=20 correct. In fact, the failure of the uniformitarian principle to = explain=20 the evidence for creation presented herein invalidates the basis = for the=20 above proof.

POLONIUM, DWARF, AND GIANT HALOS IN = MINERALS

Of the three types of unusual halos that appear = distinct=20 from those formed by U and/or Th alpha decay, only the Po halos, = Fig.1=20 (b-d, n-r, r=92), can presently be identified with known alpha = radioactivity=20 (1-3,11-13). Po halos occupy a special niche in my creation model, = and=20 these halos will be discussed in more detail subsequently. Several = lines=20 of evidence which indicate the enigmatic dwarf halos (see Fig. 2) = were=20 produced by some presently unidentified radioactivity have been = summarized=20 (1,12,14,15). The rapid etch from HF and the K/Ca inversion are = strongly=20 characteristic of highly radiation-damaged regions.

The characteristics of the giant halos found in = a certain=20 Madagascan mica have also been summarized (1,14,16), and while no=20 definitive evidence as yet exists for a radioactive origin, some = halos=20 with opaque inclusions in this same mica exhibit isotopic = anomalies which=20 raise questions about the uniformity of U and Th alpha decay. For = example,=20 the mass scans and x-ray fluorescence analyses shown in Fig. 3 = clearly=20 indicate that, whereas both the monazite and opaque inclusions = exhibit=20 ²⁰⁶Pb and ²⁰⁷Pb from U decay, the opaque = inclusions=20 exhibit a marked deficiency of ²⁰⁸Pb from = ²³²Th=20 decay (14).

SECONDARY RADIOHALOS IN COALIFIED WOOD

All the various types of halos discussed thus = far are=20 termed primary halos because they developed from alpha = radioactivity=20 emanating from small accessory inclusions that were present when = the=20 mineral crystallized. But secondary halos also exist in pieces of=20 coalified wood taken from highly uraniferous deposits in the = Colorado=20 Plateau. There is abundant evidence that U solutions infiltrated = much of=20 the sedimentary material in the geological formations of that = region when=20 the wood was still in a gel-like condition (17). When U-bearing = solutions=20 passed through pieces of wood, certain active sites within these = specimens=20 preferentially collected U, other sites collected rare earth type=20 elements, and still others Se, Po, and Pb. It is quite significant = that=20 the U halos, which developed around the tiny U-rich sites, are all = underdeveloped, which, on the basis of a uniform decay rate (the = rationale=20 for using this assumption for these specimens will be explained=20 subsequently), suggests only a relatively short time since U = infiltration.=20 Ion microprobe mass scans of these U halo centers have shown = extremely=20 high ²³⁸U/²⁰⁶Pb ratios, which, again on the=20 assumption of a uniform decay rate, is consistent with a U = infiltration=20 within the last several thousand years (17).

Similar underdeveloped U halos have been found = in the=20 coalified wood from the Chattanooga Shale, and in fact recent ion=20 microprobe analyses show, in agreement with earlier results (17), = that the=20 ²³⁸U/²⁰⁶Pb ratios of the U halos in the = Colorado=20 Plateau samples (Eocene, Triassic, and Jurassic) and the = Chattanooga Shale=20 (Devonian) are virtually indistinguishable. These results suggest = that=20 U-infiltration occurred concurrently in all these formations.

Another class of more sharply defined halos was = also=20 discovered in the Colorado Plateau coalified wood specimens (17). = The=20 centers of these halos exhibit a distinct metallic-like = reflectance when=20 viewed with reflected light. Three different varieties of this = halo exist:=20 one with a circular cross section, another with an elliptical = cross=20 section with variable major and minor axes, and a third most = unusual one=20 that is actually a dual halo, being a composite of a circular and = an=20 elliptical halo around exactly the same radio-center (see Figs. = 4-6).

Although the elliptical halos differ radically = from the=20 circular halos in minerals, the circular type resembles the=20 ^21OPo halo in minerals and variations in the radii of = circular=20 halos approximate the calculated penetrated distances (26 to 31 = :m) of the ^21OPo alpha = particle=20 (energy E =3D 5.3 MeV) in this coalified wood (17). Henderson (18) = theorized=20 that Po halos might form in minerals when U-daughter Po isotopes = or their=20 alpha precursors were preferentially accumulated into small = inclusions=20 from some nearby U source. This hypothesis has not been confirmed = for the=20 origin of three distinct types of Po halos in U-poor minerals (1, = 2, 11),=20 but it does seem to provide a reasonable explanation for the = origin of=20 ²¹⁰Po halos in U-rich coalified wood specimens.

Electron microscope x-ray fluorescence analyses = showed=20 these halo centers were mainly Pb and Se. This composition fits = well into=20 the secondary accumulation hypothesis for both of the U-daughters, = ²¹⁰Po (half-life, t_=BD =3D 138 days) and its = beta=20 precursor ^21OPb (t_=BD=3D 22 y), possess the = two=20 characteristics that are vitally essential for the hypothesis: (i) = chemical similarity with the elements in the inclusion and (ii) = half-lives=20 sufficiently long to permit accumulation prior to decay, a = requirement=20 related to the nuclide transport rate.

What is the meaning of the ^21OPo = halos in=20 Figs. 4-6? Clearly, the variations in shape can be attributed to = plastic=20 deformation which occurred prior coalification. Since the model = for=20 ²¹⁰Po formation thus envisions that both = ²¹⁰Po and=20 ^21OPb were accumulating simultaneously in the Pb-Se = inclusion,=20 a spherical ^21OPo halo could develop in 0.5 to 1 year = from the=20 ^21OPo atoms initially resent and a second similar=20 ^21OPo halo could develop in 25 to 50 years as the=20 ^21OPb atoms more slowly beta decayed to produce another = crop of=20 ²¹⁰Po atoms. If there was no deformation of the matrix = between=20 these periods, the two ^21OPo halos would simply = coincide. If,=20 however, the matrix was deformed between the two periods of halo=20 formation, then the first halo would have been compressed into an=20 ellipsoid, and the second would be a normal sphere. The result = would be a=20 dual "halo" (Fig. 6). The widespread occurrence of these dual = halos in=20 both Triassic and Jurassic specimens can actually be considered=20 corroborative evidence for a one-time introduction of U into these = formations, because it is then possible to account for their = structure on=20 the basis of a single specifically timed tectonic event = (17).

HALOS IN COALIFIED WOOD: A FLOOD-RELATED = PHENONENA

A worldwide Flood, which is postulated to have = occurred=20 about 1650 years after creation, is the third singularity in the = creation=20 model proposed herein. I have advanced the hypothesis that the=20 underdeveloped U halos in both the Colorado Plateau and = Chattanooga Shale=20 coalified wood specimens exhibit very high U/Pb ratios because the = uranium=20 infiltration of the wood occurred only when those geological = deposits were=20 being emplaced at the time of the Flood several thousand years = ago,=20 instead of the 60 to 400 millions of years ago accepted by = uniformitarian=20 geology. I suggest at least part of the U-series disequilibria = (19) found=20 in the Colorado Plateau U deposits is because some U-daughter = radionuclide=20 separation occurred at the time of the Flood, and there has been=20 insufficient time since then to reestablish equilibrium = conditions.

The high U/Pb ratios and secondary = ^21OPo halos=20 in the coalified wood samples from the Eocene epoch and the = Triassic and=20 Jurassic periods suggest to me that the wood in all these = formations was=20 in the same gel-like condition when infiltrated by the U-bearing=20 solutions. To me these data represent evidence for a concurrent,=20 single-stage invasion of U into all the different geological = formations=20 represented by the coalified wood samples. This is precisely what = would be=20 expected on the basis of a Flood-related phenomena.

The dual Po halos also fit well into the Flood = scenario,=20 i.e. the presence of a spherical and elliptical Po halo around the = same=20 radiocenter suggests a tectonic event occurred within 50 years = after the=20 initial infiltration of uranium into the wood samples. A = readjustment of=20 the earth's crust after such a massive event is not unexpected. = Another=20 implication of the existence of ²¹⁰Po halos in these = specimens=20 is that the transformation of the wood to a semi-coal-like = condition must=20 have occurred within a period of about one year. This evidence for = a rapid=20 coalification process is in contrast to the generally accepted = view that=20 coalification is a long-term geological process.

THREE TYPES OF POLONIUM HALOS IN = MINERALS

Now there are two other Po isotopes = (²¹⁴Po and=20 ²¹⁸Po) in the U decay chain besides ²¹⁰Po, = but no=20 halos representative of these other Po isotopes have been found in = coalified wood. This is not surprising, because the half-lives of = the=20 other Po isotopes are rather short, i.e., t_=BD=3D 3m = for=20 ²¹⁸Po and t_=BD=3D 164 :s for ²¹⁴Po as are = the=20 half-lives of the beta precursors of ²¹⁴Po, i.e. = t_=BD=20=3D 26.4 m for ²¹⁴Pb and t_=BD=3D 19.8 = m for=20 ²¹⁴Bi (the precursor of ²¹⁸Po is the inert = gas=20 ²²²Rn). What is surprising is that all the three types = of Po=20 halos occur in certain minerals which typically contain orders of=20 magnitude less uranium than the U-rich coalified wood. Further, = the=20 minerals such as biotite and fluorite must have diffusion rates=20 considerably lower than those expected for a = U-solution-infiltrated=20 specimens of gel-like wood. Figure 7 shows the idealized structure = of the=20 different Po halos in comparison with the U halo.

Photographic evidence relating to the existence = of=20 different types of Po halos in minerals is shown in Fig. 1. Figure = 1(n)=20 shows three ^21OPo halos of light, medium, and very dark = coloration. The slightly higher radii for the darker halos is = attributable=20 to the higher dose. Figure 1(o) shows three different = ^21OPo=20 halos in fluorite. Figure 1(p) shows a ²¹⁴Po halo in = biotite,=20 and Fig. 1(q) shows two ²¹⁸Po halos in biotite. = Comparison of=20 these halos with the idealized ring structure in Fig. 7 shows that = Po=20 halos in minerals can be clearly identified by ring structure = studies=20 alone. The data in Table 1 shows there is an excellent agreement = between=20 the experimentally produced He ion produced coloration bands and = the Po=20 halo ring radii.

An important observation from Fig. 7 is that in = the=20 idealized ²³⁸U and ²¹⁸Po patterns, it is = evident=20 that the ²²²Rn ring should be missing from the = ²¹⁸Po=20 halo and resent in the ²³⁸U halo. Figures 8 and 9 show = the=20 presence of the ²²²Rn ring in the U halo in contrast to = its=20 absence in the ²¹⁸Po halo. This is unequivocal evidence = that=20 the ²¹⁸Po halo initiated with ²¹⁸Po rather = than with=20 any earlier alpha emitter in the U decay chain. Figures 10 and 11 = show=20 ²¹⁴Po halos and ²¹⁸Po halos in different = types of=20 biotite.

Henderson's (18) original idea that Po halos = in=20 minerals may have originated from a secondary source of = radioactivity=20 encounters formidable obstacles when closely examined. In most = cases the=20 minerals contain only ppm abundances of uranium, which means only = a=20 negligible supply of Po daughter atoms is available for capture at = any=20 given time. To form a halo these daughter atoms must migrate or = diffuse so=20 they can be captured at a collecting site, a problem which is = compounded=20 by the low diffusion rates in minerals (11, 20, 21). Despite these = objections, in 1979 several investigators suggested their results = (22)=20 might provide support for secondary Po halo formation in minerals = after=20 all. They were apparently unaware that three years earlier I had = reported=20 the experimental observation of secondary ^21OPo halos = in=20 coalified wood (17). In that report I discussed how even under the = most=20 favorable conditions (i. e., an abundant supply of U-daughters in = a highly=20 mobile environment) for the formation of secondary Po halos, only = the=20 longer half-life ^21OPo halos actually formed, the = reason being=20 that the shorter half-life Po isotopes generally decayed away = before they=20 could be captured at the tiny Pb-Se sites. If these other two Po = halo=20 types didn't form under the best conditions in the gel-like wood, = how=20 could it be expected they would form naturally in the granites = where=20 diffusion rates are vastly lower and the supply of Po atoms is=20 negligible?

The identity of U, Th and Po halos in minerals = has been=20 confirmed by analyzing the various types of halo radiocenters = using=20 scanning electron microscope x-ray fluorescence (SEMXRF) and ion=20 microprobe mass spectrometric (IMMA) techniques (2, 3). Studies of = various=20 Po halo radiocenters in biotite and fluorite have generally shown = little=20 or no U in conjunction with anomalously high=20 ²⁰⁶Pb/-²⁰⁷Pb and/or Pb/U ratios which would = be=20 expected from the decay of Po without the U precursor which = normally=20 occurs in U radiohalo centers (2,3). These results were obtained = clearly=20 in the analysis (3) of the most unusual array of Po halos which I = ever=20 found. That array, shown in Figure 12, has the appearance of a = pair of=20 spectacles, hence the designation 'Spectacle Halo.' The Spectacle = Halo=20 appearance compounds the problem of explaining its existence on = the basis=20 of known physical laws. In conclusion, in spite of attempts to = define them=20 out of existence (23), there is demonstrable evidence that Po = halos do=20 exist as separate entities (1-3).

POLONIUM HALOS IN MINERALS: AN INDEPENDENT=20 EVALUATION

Because of the implications which will be = attributed to=20 the presence of Po halos in minerals, it is important that my = colleagues=20 be apprised of the independent investigation of these phenomena by = Professor Norman Feather. In an exhaustive theoretical treatment = (24) of=20 the problem concerning their origin in minerals, Feather concludes = it is=20 difficult to account for the existence of Po halos in certain = minerals on=20 the basis of known physical principles. His exact words, as given = in the=20 synopsis of his paper, are as follows:

Ever since the discovery of Po-haloes in old = mica=20 (Henderson and Sparks 1939) the problem of their origin has = remained=20 essentially unsolved. Two suggestions have been made (Henderson = 1939;=20 Gentry et al. 1973), but neither carries immediate conviction. = These=20 suggestions are examined critically and in detail, and the = difficulties=20 attaching to the acceptance of either are identified. Because = these two=20 suggestions appear to exhaust the logical possibilities of = explanation, it=20 is tempting to admit that one of them must be basically correct, = but=20 whoever would make this admission must be fortified by credulity = of a high=20 order.

POLONIUM HALOS AND PRIMORDIAL ROCKS: A TEST OF = THE=20 HYPOTHESIS

I have advanced the hypothesis (25,26) that the = three=20 different types of Po halos in minerals represent the decay of = primordial=20 Po, in which case the rocks that host these halos, i.e., the = Precambrian=20 granites, must be primordial rocks (25,26). By this reasoning the=20 Precambrian granites are identified as rocks that were created = almost=20 instantly as a part of the creation event recorded in Genesis 1:1 = rather=20 than rocks that are a product of the evolution of the earth. This=20 rationale would be without scientific content if I had not also = stated=20 (25) that the laboratory synthesis of a hand-sized piece of = granite or=20 biotite would be accepted as falsifying my view that the = Precambrian=20 granites are created rocks and, likewise, that the subsequent = production=20 of ²¹⁸Po halos in that synthesized specimen of granite = or=20 biotite would be accepted as falsifying my view that Po halos in=20 Precambrian granites originated with primordial polonium. The only = response to my repeated (25,26) challenges to perform these = laboratory=20 syntheses and falsify the aforementioned evidences for creation = has thus=20 far been silence. It is inescapable that these experiments should = be=20 successful if the uniformitarian principle is true. Thus, with so = much at=20 stake for evolution, I suspect the reason why my evolutionary = colleagues=20 have failed to achieve success is because the Precambrian granites = never=20 formed by the uniformitarian principle to begin with; hence, to = attempt to=20 utilize it now to produce a synthesized piece of granite is just a = futile=20 effort. The end result is that the uniformitarian principle is = essentially=20 falsified because of its failure to live up to its own = predictions. But=20 since all the pieces in the evolutionary puzzle are glued together = by this=20 principle, we must now come to the same conclusion about evolution = itself.

A PROPOSED CREATION MODEL AND THE AGE OF THE = EARTH

The evidence for creation cited above suggests = there may=20 have been special periods in earth history when physical laws as = presently=20 understood were insufficient to explain all the events transpiring = within=20 those periods. This evidence also undergirds the formulation of a = creation=20 model based on the Judeo-Christian ethic. The creation model = proposed=20 herein postulates that on at least three occasions (singularities) = during=20 the past 6000 years there were significant exceptions to the=20 uniformitarian principle within our local cosmos (the Milky Way), = viz.,=20 the ex nihilo creation of our galaxy about 6000 years ago, the = Fall of man=20 shortly thereafter, and the occurrence of a worldwide Flood about = 4350=20 years ago. These ages are derived from Scriptural chronology. It = is=20 assumed that the creative act which brought the Milky Way into = existence=20 also caused the immediate propagation of light throughout the = galaxy. No=20 constraints are placed on the age of the universe.

Singularities and Uniformities: A Complementary=20 Approach

It is essential to understand that uniform = action of=20 physical laws between singularities is an integral part of = this=20 creation model. Moreover, the occurrence of a singularity does not = mean a=20 completely chaotic condition without any laws to govern the = operations of=20 nature during that period. During the Flood singularity some = physical=20 processes may not have changed at all whereas there is evidence = others=20 varied considerably. An enhanced radioactive decay rate during the = Flood=20 singularity would have generated a considerable amount of heat, = thus=20 initiating volcanic and tectonic activity during and after that = period.=20 This three-singularity model appears to be the minimum framework = that=20 includes the essential features of the Genesis narrative. Possibly = the=20 continent-separating episode recorded in Genesis 10:25, when the = earth was=20 divided in the days of Peleg a few hundred years after the Flood, = should=20 also be included as a singularity; certainly it must figure = prominently in=20 any creation-based reconstruction of earth history that deals with = continental drift. However, to simplify matters, the following = comments=20 exclude consideration of this event.

Singularities and the interpretation of = Radioactive Decay=20 as Elapsed Time

In summary, the creation model envisions an = initial=20 creation singularity followed by a short period of uniformity = until the=20 second singularity, an event which involved degenerative changes = in the=20 biological world and quite possibly modification of some of the = original=20 physical laws which governed the earth and our near celestial = environment.=20 Another period of uniformity follows, with the modified physical = laws now=20 in effect, for about 1600 years down to the longer-duration Flood=20 singularity. The last period of uniformity extends down to the = present. In=20 this scenario U/Pb ratios are presently utilized as indicators of = elapsed=20 time since the last singularity . = ²³⁸U/²⁰⁶Pb=20 ratios are not used as time measures prior to this last = singularity=20 because of conflicting evidence of very high Pb and He retention = in=20 natural zircons subjected to a prolonged high temperature = environment in=20 deep granite. Those results, discussed below, are consistent with = a very=20 young age of the earth, and suggest that the radioactive decay = rate may=20 have been enhanced (indeed, had to be if this creation model is = correct)=20 during any one of the three singularities. (The Peleg episode = potentially=20 adds one more possibility.) The assumption of uniform decay since = the=20 Flood is the basis for interpreting the very high U/Pb ratios in = coalified=20 wood samples as evidence for a several-thousand-year age of = specimens=20 which conventional geology holds to be about 60 to 400 million = years=20 old.

Possible Evidence of Enhanced Radioactive Decay = from=20 'Blasting' Halos

Additional evidence for an enhanced radioactive = decay=20 rate comes from Ramdohr's observations on fractured radioactive = halos in=20 polished ore sections. He reports (27) that certain radioactive=20 inclusions, which exhibit a considerable volume increase due to=20 isotropization from radioactive decay, have in numerous cases been = observed to fracture the surrounding mineral in a random pattern. = Ramdohr=20 points out that the surrounding mineral should expand slowly over=20 geological time due to radioactive isotropization, and individual = cracks=20 should appear as soon as the elastic limit is reached. He further = points=20 out that, while these expansion cracks should occur first along = cohesion=20 minimums and grain boundaries, nothing like this happens. = Individual=20 cracks surrounding the radioactive inclusion are randomly = distributed and=20 evidently occur quite suddenly in the form of an explosive = fracture and=20 not a slow expansion. Ramdohr shows many photographs of instances = wherein=20 the central inclusion fractures the non-isotropic outer zone. The=20 occurrence of this phenomenon is worldwide.

While there might be other alternatives, one = possible=20 explanation of these "fractures" or "blasting" halos is that the = rate of=20 radioactive decay was at one time far greater than that observed = today.=20 The isotropization of the host minerals would have occurred very = rapidly=20 due to an anomalous decay rate, and hence fracturing of the outer = mineral=20 would be expected.

The Age of the Earth and Pb Retention in Deep = Granite=20 Cores

Results pertaining more specifically to a = recent creation=20 of the earth come from studies of Pb retention in zircons taken = from deep=20 Precambrian granite cores (28). To understand the rationale for = this last=20 statement, it must first be understood that the Pb in these = zircons is=20 primarily a secondary trace component derived from the decay of = small=20 amounts of U and Th. Secondly, this radiogenic Pb has a tendency = to=20 migrate or diffuse out of the zircon crystals far more rapidly = than the=20 parent U and Th because these elements are relatively tightly = bound in=20 lattice sites, whereas the Pb atoms really do not fit into the = zircon=20 lattice. Further, since all elements show an exponential increase = in the=20 bulk diffusion rate with increasing temperature, and since the = temperature=20 in the granite cores increases significantly from near the top = (105=B0C) to=20 the bottom (313=B0C) of the granite portion of the drill hole, = calculations=20 show that 50 :m-size = zircons taken=20 from the bottom of the drill hole (313=B0C) should have lost 1% of = their Pb=20 content in about 300,000 years. Since the zircons were in cores = taken from=20 a Precambrian granite that is estimated to be 1.5 billion years = old by=20 conventional geochronology (29), the prediction based on = uniformitarian=20 geochronology would be that most of the Pb would have long ago = diffused=20 out of the zircons extracted from the deepest cores at 313=B0C. = But the=20 results of the experiments did not agree with this prediction; = rather they=20 showed equally high retention of Pb in zircons taken from all = depths. In=20 fact no Pb loss from zircons at 313=B0C would appear to place an = upper limit=20 to the age of this Precambrian granite, which, on the presumption = that=20 these granites are primordial rocks, in essence places the same = limit on=20 the age of the earth.

The Age of the Earth: Limited by Helium = Retention in Deep=20 Granite Cores

Another approach which seemed to hold greater = prospects=20 for more closely defining an upper limit for the age of these = Precambrian=20 granites (and hence of the earth) was the differential analysis of = similar=20 size zircons from these same cores for helium, the second most = volatile=20 chemical element known. The helium accumulates in these zircons in = a=20 manner similar to the radiogenic Pb, viz., from the alpha = particles=20 emitted from trace amounts of U and Th. However, the extreme = volatility of=20 this gas means that it diffuses out of the zircons at a far = greater rate=20 than Pb. On a purely uniformitarian basis the search for helium in = these=20 zircons would quite possibly never have been done because = conventional=20 geological wisdom suggests negligible helium retention in zircons=20 subjected to even 100=B0C for the presumed 1.5 billion year age = (29) of=20 those granites. But having already discovered that the Pb = retention in=20 these zircons contradicted the age estimates determined by = radiometric=20 dating techniques, I decided that, from a creationist perspective, = the=20 search might just reveal something of exceptional interest. Groups = of=20 zircons from six different depths were repeatedly analyzed for = helium=20 using an extremely sensitive gas mass spectrometric system. The = results=20 (30) showed a helium retention of about 58% in the tiny 50 :m zircons from 960 meters depth = (105=B0C),=20 about 27% in zircons from 2170 meters (151=B0C) and a phenomenal = 17%=20 retention of helium even at 2900 meters where the temperature is = 197=B0C.=20 These results show a creation-based perspective of science does = possess=20 predictive capabilities which can be scientifically tested.

It is difficult to understand how such high = retention=20 (30) of helium can be accounted for except by restricting the age = of these=20 granites (and hence the earth) to something of the order of = several=20 thousand years. These results are consistent with an approximate = 6000-year=20 age of the earth and moreover are in direct conflict with the = presumed=20 4.5-billion-year age of the earth determined by radioactive dating = techniques. Evolutionary colleagues can prove this deduction for a = young=20 age of the earth is wrong if they can show just how this unusually = high=20 retention of helium can be deduced from the accepted = 1.5-billion-year age=20 (29) of those zircons by using only uniformitarian = principles.

A CREATION MODEL OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE = UNIVERSE

Decades of research in astronomy and cosmology = have led=20 to the general belief that the present state of the universe can=20 ultimately be traced to an initial event popularly known as the = Big Bang.=20 Despite this popularity it should be remembered that the Big Bang=20 cosmological model is only as valid as the fundamental premises = which=20 support it. Thus the discussion of the proposed creation model of = the=20 universe must necessarily also focus on the validity of the Big = Bang=20 theory, whose basic framework consists of the cosmological and=20 uniformitarian principles together with the general theory of = relativity.=20 The previous sections of this article have documented the failure = of the=20 uniformitarian principle to provide confirmation for the = geological=20 evolution of the Precambrian granites. If this principle cannot = account=20 for the evolution of the earth, is it difficult to understand how = it can=20 provide a rational basis for constructing an evolutionary model of = the=20 universe. It may be argued, however, that the edifice of modern = cosmology=20 fits together too well for there to be something wrong with basic=20 assumptions. This point will receive close examination in the = following=20 discussion of the hot Big Bang Model (31,32).

The Big Bang Model and the Bubble = Relation

About 50 years ago Hubble proposed that the = astronomical=20 data then available seemed to linearly relate the redshift z of a = galaxy=20 with the distance R to the galaxy, and this has become known as = the Hubble=20 relation. Since then galactic redshifts have been mainly = interpreted as=20 Doppler shifts resulting from high recessional velocities of the = distant=20 galaxies and, moreover, have been generally thought to provide = some of the=20 strongest evidence for the hot Big Bang model of an expanding = universe.=20 (See, however, Hetherington's evaluation (33) of the Hubble = relation.) The=20 reason for confidence in this interpretation is that by using the = general=20 theory of relativity as the mathematical basis for calculating the = space-time development of the primeval fireball, it is possible to = derive=20 the z % R Hubble relation (31,32) = provided=20 certain assumptions are made.

Notwithstanding the general belief that the = accumulated=20 astronomical data do support a z % = R=20 relation, the fact is that over the past two decades several = detailed=20 studies of redshift distributions have been published which call = the=20 Hubble relation into question. As early as 1962 Hawkins (34) = claimed that=20 the redshift data indicated an approximate quadratic-distance = redshift=20 relation, in particular z % = R^2.22.=20 More recently the case for a z %=20 R² relation (for low z) was considerably = reinforced by=20 the extensive statistical analyses of Segal (35) and of Nicoll and = Segal=20 (36). Even though these latter results have been disputed by = Sandage et=20 al. (37), it appears that Nicoll and Segal (38) have responded = with=20 stronger evidence for a z % = R²=20 relation. In fact, Nicoll et al. (39) have gone so far as to claim = statistical invalidation of the Hubble relation for low values of = z. At a=20 minimum the foregoing results make it very difficult to believe = that the=20 redshift data as presently interpreted actually support the Hubble = relation, which is the cornerstone of Big Bang cosmology.

As noted above, the latest analyses of Nicoll = and Segal=20 (38) show the redshift data more closely fit what is thought to be = the=20 equivalent of a quadratic rather than a linear distance relation. = The=20 reason for qualifying the last statement is because astronomers = measure=20 not distances but apparent magnitudes, which are first corrected = for=20 various factors before being used as a basis for establishing the=20 magnitude-redshift relation. One important correction involves the = assumption that the galactic light intensity (for any given = frequency=20 interval) as observed on earth is reduced by two factors of 1+z, = one for=20 the redshift itself, and the other for the presumed galactic = recession. Of=20 course if the galaxies are not receding, then an unwarranted = factor has=20 been introduced into the magnitude correction procedures, and this = would=20 affect the perceived redshift distributions.

The Big Bang Model and the Cosmic Microwave = Radiation=20 (CMR)

In 1978 Penzias and Wilson received the Nobel = prize in=20 physics for their discovery of the CMR in 1965. Since then it has = been=20 widely claimed that this pervasive radiation field is a relic of = the time=20 eons ago when radiation quanta decoupled from matter in the = primeval=20 fireball (31). According to this theory, the decoupling presumably = occurred about 300,000 years after the Big Bang when the primeval = fireball=20 had expanded and its temperature had dropped to the point where = matter and=20 radiation ceased to interact as it had before. After this time, = supposedly=20 about 15 billion years ago, it is believed that this radiation = propagated=20 throughout space in an unobstructed fashion to eventually become = the CMR.=20 It is essential to note that the radiation leaving the primeval = fireball=20 at the time of decoupling was presumably still quite hot (about = 3000=B0K).=20 The experimental measurements of the CMR temperature at present = reveal=20 that it is very cold (3=B0K). But if the radiation from the = primeval=20 fireball is assumed not to interact with matter after the time of=20 decoupling, then how did this initially hot radiation lose its = energy, or=20 temperature, to later become the 3=B0K CMR. The standard = explanation is that=20 the general relativistic analysis of the space-time expansion of = the=20 primeval fireball predicts that the decoupled radiation quanta = will lose=20 energy just as a result of the expansion of the universe. There = is,=20 however, nothing in modern experimental physics which suggests = that=20 radiation quanta change energy by moving through free space. Thus, = the=20 standard explanation for this remarkable thousand-fold energy loss = in the=20 decoupled radiation quanta depends upon an aspect of general = relativity=20 that is unsupported by scientific evidence.

To avoid possible misunderstandings, some = recent=20 experimental results of gravitational effects on photons will be=20 discussed. Einstein's principle of equivalence, which is = independent of=20 general relativity, does not distinguish whether a photon = traversing a=20 gravitational potential gradient undergoes a change in energy in = transit,=20 or whether its energy is uniquely determined by the gravitational=20 potential at the point of emission. The earliest Mossbauer = experiments=20 (40) on the gravitational redshift could not distinguish between = these two=20 alternatives, and it was widely believed that the photon energy = could=20 change when passing through a difference in gravitational = potential. But=20 recent experimental results (41) suggest the photon energy is=20 characterized by the gravitational potential at the point of = emission=20 rather than varying as the photon moves to a different potential. = In the=20 light of these results it is quite difficult for me to believe = that=20 radiation quanta can undergo energy loss in free space as = predicted in the=20 general relativistic Big Bang model. At this point my views on the = theory=20 of relativity need to be clarified.

I recognize there are some notable experimental = results=20 in physics such as apparent time dilation, the transverse Doppler = effect,=20 the increase in mass with velocity, and the gravitational bending = of=20 light, which are in accord with the predictions of the theory of=20 relativity. However, these experimental results cannot be used as=20 confirmations of the special or general theory of relativity = because there=20 are other (albeit far lesser known) theories which predict similar = results. (See for instance North's (42) review of various = alternative=20 theories of gravitation and their predictions.) Further, recently = Rastall=20 (43) and especially Marinov (44) have shown independently that it = is not=20 necessary to assume the general relativistic framework to obtain = many of=20 the same mathematical results. On the other hand, the question of = whether=20 the Big Bang model is a correct description of the origin and = evolutionary=20 development of the universe is entirely hinged on the ultimate = validity of=20 general relativity's fundamental postulate, which in principle = denies that=20 privileged reference frames exist. Very germane to this discussion = is the=20 recent admission (45) of an eminent physicist to the effect that = the CMR=20 presents undeniable experimental evidence for the existence of an = absolute=20 reference frame in the universe, a result which is consistent with = Marinov's (44) evidence for absolute space-time and also with at = least one=20 of the earlier gravitational theories reviewed by North (42). This = point=20 is treated in more detail subsequently and it is shown that the = existence=20 of the CMR as an absolute reference frame is perhaps the most = important=20 evidence that can be adduced for the creation model of the = universe as=20 proposed herein. Before engaging in this discussion further, it is = necessary to complete the present discussion of the CMR and the=20 Cosmological Principle.

Measurements have shown the spatial = distribution of the=20 CMR is so uniform that it is questionable whether it could have = been=20 produced by the Big Bang scenario as it was originally conceived.=20 Weisskopf (45) has recently reviewed the nature of this and other = problems=20 with the Big Bang model, and has discussed the provisional = solutions=20 offered by postulating an explosive expansion in the very early = stages of=20 the Big Bang. Questions still remain, however, not the least being = that=20 the entire scenario assumes some type of grand unification theory = which=20 has yet to be verified. But is it consistent for cosmologists on = one hand=20 to claim that the universe evolved only through the action of = known=20 physical laws and on the other hand to devise solutions to = cosmological=20 problems by using unverified hypotheses as a basis for those = solutions? We=20 have already noted the failure of the uniformitarian principle to=20 successfully account for the origin of Po halos in Precambrian = granites,=20 or to provide a basis for synthesis of a piece of granite. In a = similar=20 manner it seems the introduction of unverified physical concepts = as the=20 basis for possible solutions to difficult evolutionary = cosmological=20 problems is just the inevitable result of the failure to explain = the=20 creation of the universe on the basis of the uniformitarian = principle. In=20 any event, the newly proposed expansionary modification to the Big = Bang=20 only deals with the earliest instants of the Big Bang, after which = it is=20 supposed the expansion of the primeval fireball continues as = envisioned in=20 the original Big Bang model. As we shall soon see, it appears = there may be=20 a contradiction involved in the theoretical development of = expansion of=20 the fireball.

The Big Bang Model and the Cosmological = Principle

In spite of the foregoing difficulties it might = still be=20 argued that Big Bang model must be correct because it predicts a = universe=20 in accord with the Cosmological Principle, viz., that the universe = appears=20 the same irrespective of the location of the observer in the = universe. The=20 problem with this argument is that we really do not know the = Cosmological=20 Principle is true. In fact, all that we know is that the large = scale=20 structure of the universe appears to be approximately isotropic = (i. e.,=20 the same in all directions) from our present point of observation. = Modern=20 cosmology justifies the Cosmological Principle by coupling the = observation=20 of isotropy about our position with the assumption that our galaxy = does=20 not occupy a special position in the universe. That is, if our = galaxy=20 occupies a non-specific or arbitrary position in the universe, = then it=20 follows the universe must be isotropic everywhere and hence = homogeneous as=20 well.

But what if our galaxy does occupy a privileged = position=20 in the universe? First, it would no longer be logical to = extrapolate the=20 isotropy which we observe to the other parts of the universe, = which means=20 it would no longer be possible to justify either the condition of=20 homogeneity or the cosmological principle. Second, the simplest = deduction=20 of the observed isotropy of the universe from our location is that = the=20 universe must be spherically symmetric about either the Milky Way = or some=20 point which is astronomically nearby. But spherical symmetry about = any=20 point in the universe implies that point is the Center, and this = brings us=20 to the discussion of the creation model.

A Creation Model of the Universe: The = Fundamental=20 Postulate

The fundamental premise of the Judeo-Christian = creation=20 model of the universe is determined by the scripture, "The Lord = has=20 established His throne in the heavens, and His kingdom ruleth over = all."=20 Psalm 103:19 (RSV). On the basis of this statement it is evident = that the=20 Creator has established, or fixed, His throne at some point in the = universe, which in my view is none other than the Center of the = universe.=20 It is axiomatic that a fixed point in the universe requires the = existence=20 of a fixed or absolute reference frame. Previously it was noted = that the=20 CMR has been recognized as establishing an absolute reference = frame (45);=20 so it is quite clear that the fundamental postulate of this = creation model=20 of the universe is based on tangible scientific evidence.

The Revolving Steady State Model of the = Universe: A Brief=20 Description

Assuming there is a Center (C) to the universe, = I propose=20 that the galaxies are not receding from each other as presently = supposed,=20 but instead are revolving at different distances and at different=20 tangential speeds around C. On this basis all galaxies must have a = tangential velocity around C. Measurements have shown that our = solar=20 system, and hence the Milky Way, has a cosmic velocity through the = CMR=20 (46), and it is this velocity which is identified with the = tangential=20 velocity of the Milky Way around C. In this view C must lie = somewhere in=20 that plane which passes through the MW which is also perpendicular = to the=20 cosmic velocity vector of the MW. It is evident that the RSS model = pictures the galaxies orbiting C in any one of many = different-sized=20 concentric shells which suggests the alternate designation 'Shell = Model of=20 the Universe.'

As originally conceived this Revolving Steady = State (RSS)=20 model envisions a universe with galaxies which move in circular = orbits=20 under the gravitational field produced by all of them. The field = is=20 assumed to be stationary and spherically symmetric. Decades ago = Einstein=20 made a general relativity study (47) of circulating particles = constrained=20 by this type of gravitational field, but his analysis did not = mention=20 redshifts, nor was there any hint that he considered his analysis = had any=20 reference to the structure of the universe.

The RSS Model and Galactic Redshifts

Assuming the galaxies are revolving in = different orbital=20 planes and with different tangential velocities v around some = universal=20 center C, initially I thought that if the Milky Way was one of the = innermost galaxies, then most of the galactic redshifts as = observed on=20 earth might be due to a combination of gravitational and = transverse=20 Doppler effects. (A literature search showed that Burcev (48) had = proposed=20 over a decade ago that quasars were possibly stellar objects whose = redshifts might be attributable to the transverse Doppler = effect.)

Although questions have arisen about this = explanation for=20 the galactic redshifts in the RSS model, it seems worthwhile to = explain my=20 original rationale and the objections which now appear to present=20 themselves. In particular, in the Newtonian-based RSS model the = galaxies=20 of mass m and tangential velocity v remain in circular orbits by=20 gravitational attraction of the total mass M within the sphere of = orbital=20 radius R. In this scenario, mv²/R =3D = mMG/R², or=20 v² =3D GM/R, where G is the gravitational constant. = Thus an=20 observer on an innermost galaxy located at a distance = R₁ from C=20 would in theory see light from a more distant galaxy (at = R₂=20 from C) shifted in frequency because of the transverse Doppler = effect and=20 the change in gravitational potential V(R) =3D -GM/R. The presumed = limiting=20 distance R' at which galaxies could remain in stable orbits would = be when=20 the tangential velocity v =3D c, the velocity of light. Beyond = this presumed=20 galactic cutoff distance the RSS model tentatively assumes a = rapidly=20 diminishing mass/energy density so that we do not encounter an = infinite=20 gravitational potential (see discussion of equations (2) and (3) = for more=20 details).

The frequency shifts expected in the RSS model = can be=20 compared to an earth-bound observer comparing the frequency of a = light=20 signal emitted from his position on the rotating earth's surface, = where=20 the tangential velocity is v₁, and the gravitational is = V₁, with the frequency of the same signal emitted from = an=20 overhead satellite which is orbiting with velocity = v₂ in=20 a gravitational potential V₂. The experimentally = confirmed (41)=20 equation for the redshift, as derived from the principle of = equivalence,=20 is:

(1) z =3D (V₁ - V₂) / C = ² =96=20 (v₁² - v₂² ) / 2=20 C².

The same equation applies in the RSS model = except that=20 v₁ and V₁ are the cosmic velocity and = gravitational=20 potential of the Milky Way at R₁ from C whereas = v₂=20 and V₂ represent the same quantities for a more distant = galaxy=20 at R₂ from C.

Another source of frequency shifts arises = because the=20 Milky Way (MW) is not exactly at C. In this case the more distant=20 galaxies, which are rotating away from or toward the MW, produce = first=20 order Doppler redshifts or blueshifts. The blueshifts, which would = be most=20 pronounced for nearby galaxies, can be eliminated for all = practical=20 purposes if it is assumed that the more distant galaxies are = rotating away=20 from the MW. This scenario would result in a recessional redshift = which,=20 because it depends on the cosine of the angle between the velocity = vector=20 of the outer galaxy and the line of sight from the MW to that = galaxy,=20 would diminish with distance. Thus, of itself this redshift could = at most=20 be only a part of the total galactic redshift observed on the = earth. Of=20 course, a significant distance-related redshift, irrespective of = its=20 origin, could overshadow most blueshifts expected from galaxies = rotating=20 toward the MW and eliminate the need for assuming rotation away = from the=20 MW.

We now return to the discussion of the = redshifts expected=20 on the basis of eq. (1). If the D,=20 the mass/energy density of the universe is assumed to be constant = then M =3D=20 4 BD R³/3, and=20 substitution of the appropriate quantities into eq. (1) leads to = the=20 formal result that z is proportional to R² , which is = of the=20 same form of the redshift relation proposed in references = (33,34,37-39).=20 On a similar basis, if the density is assumed to vary inversely as = R, then=20 one can obtain an expression for z which is proportional to R, = which is of=20 the same form as the Hubble relation (49).

Of course, astronomers measure apparent = magnitudes, not=20 distances, and, for there to be a quantitative comparison between = the=20 above results and the redshift distribution, the light flux = relation for=20 the RSS model must be formulated so as to include the combined = effect of=20 the redshift and gravitational focusing. This formulation has yet = to be=20 done; thus on this basis alone it would be premature to claim the = forgoing=20 results are consistent with the galactic redshift relation = proposed by=20 Nicoll and Segal (38). Moreover it should be remembered that if = the=20 universe is revolving, then an extraneous factor has been included = into=20 the data which comprise the redshift distribution, and this would = preclude=20 any immediate comparison. But regardless of the outcome of the = above=20 calculations, there seems to be a more fundamental objection to = the=20 preceding formulation.

In particular, we must carefully investigate = whether the=20 gravitational potential V =3D - GM/R used in the above = calculations is the=20 correct expression for the potential function. It is of crucial = importance=20 to know whether it is correct for it is used as the basis for the=20 derivation of the Hubble relation (31,32) in Big Bang cosmology. = According=20 to Silk (31) and Weinberg (32), its use in computing the potential = at the=20 surface of an arbitrarily large, but finite sphere, of radius R = within an=20 infinite universe is justified by a theorem due to Birkhoff. Part = of the=20 proof of this theorem implicitly assumes that the universe is = structured=20 according to the Cosmological Principle. Now the creation model of = the=20 universe proposed herein is also of infinite extent, but the = Cosmological=20 Principle does not hold, so that there is no basic reason why this = theorem=20 should yield the correct gravitational potential in the RSS model. = But=20 should it hold for the Big Bang model?

To answer this question we first note that the = negative=20 gradient of the potential V =3D -GM/R yields a repulsive force per = unit mass=20 F/m =3D GM/R² whereas there is an experimentally = confirmed=20 theorem in classical mechanics which definitely requires an = attractive=20 force per unit mass F/m =3D -GM/R² to exist at any = point R within=20 a sphere enclosing a uniform mass distribution. This latter result = is an=20 integral part of both the RSS and the Big Bang models. Thus the = potential=20 V =3D -GM/R is just as wrong for the Big Bang model as it would be = for the=20 RSS model because it yields an incorrect sign for the force. Even = Silk's=20 (31) elementary treatment (see page 332) makes it clear that the=20 derivation of the Friedmann equation for the Big Bang expanding = universe=20 is based on the potential V =3D -GM/R. Here we have a logical = contradiction=20 in the theoretical development of the primeval fireball, which is = of=20 course the basis for predicting the Hubble relation in the Big = Bang.

An expression for the potential (50,51) which = does yield=20 the correct attractive force is given by

The problem here is that for a finite, uniform = density we=20 encounter an infinite potential due to the presumed infinite size = of the=20 universe. This result is the same for both the Big Bang model and = the RSS=20 model.

Alternatively, a finite potential can be = obtained from=20 eq. (2) by assuming the density diminishes more rapidly than=20 1/R³ after R', where v =3D c. As a first approximation = this=20 assumption truncates the potential at R'. In this case the upper=20 integration limits in eq. (2) must be changed from infinity to R', = and we=20 have the following potential:

If this potential is used in eq. (1) to compute = z for the=20 RSS model, then for a uniform density for all R less than R', we = find the=20 redshift is zero. If, however, the density increases as = R^O.22=20 then we can formally obtain a relation (51) similar to that = deduced by=20 Hawkins (34). Again, however, it is premature to make any claims = about=20 this result until more work is done.

Another possibility for obtaining redshifts in = the RSS=20 model is to assume the mass/energy density diminishes as = 1/R⁴.=20 In this case the galactic orbits are no longer circular but = spirals, and=20 there is a recessional component to the velocity which leads to a = first=20 order Doppler shift and a Hubble type z % = r=20 relation. For this view to have any credibility most of the = mass/energy of=20 the universe must be in a form other than the matter and radiation = energy=20 presently observed and/or inferred in stellar systems and = intergalactic=20 dust. In this context it is perhaps worth mentioning that Ellis = (52) has=20 proposed that there may be a large amount of undetected = mass/energy in=20 other forms (e.g., neutrinos) which could raise the cosmic = mass/energy=20 density to more than a million times the present density estimates = of=20 10^-31to 10^-29g/cm³.

Of course the RSS model does not require that = the=20 redshifts are velocity dependent. In this respect it is well known = that=20 years ago proponents of a static or steady state universe proposed = a=20 variety of distance-dependent interpretations of the redshift = which were=20 non-recessional in nature (see North's (42) review for details and = references). The investigation of the origin of the redshifts in = the RSS=20 model should include a reexamination of these alternatives.

Estimates of the Distance from the Milky Way to = the=20 Center

Earlier it was implied that the Milky Way could = be one of=20 the innermost galaxies in the RSS model. This view is based on the = assumption that the Milky Way's cosmic galactic velocity of 550 = km/s=20 through the CMR (46) is just the tangential velocity of the Milky = Way (MW)=20 around C. Galactic peculiar motions may also be of the same = nature. On=20 this basis we can compute the angular velocity T of the MW around C from v^{2 =}=3D=20 T²R^{2 =}=3D GM/R,=20 which leads to the result that T =3D=20 2(BDG/3) = ^=BD.

For a constant D =3D=20 10^-29 g/cm ³, then T =3D 5 x 10^-11 rad/y, = and the=20 distance from C to our galaxy would be about 3.7 x 10⁷=20 light-years. (C of course would be located somewhere in the plane=20 perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the MW through the = CMR.)=20 If D =3D=20 10^-27g/cm³ then T =3D 5 x 10^-10 rad/y = (or 5 x=20 10^-5 arc-s/y), which means that differential angular = motions of=20 the more distant galaxies (as observed at the MW) would still be = below the=20 present detection limit of light telescopes (=9510^-3 arc-s/y). In the = latter case the=20 distance from the MW to C is about 3.7 x lO⁶ = light-years and is=20 considered the preferred value so as reduce potential blueshift = effects.=20 This distance places C outside our galaxy but still in the = plane=20 which is perpendicular to the MW's cosmic velocity vector. No=20 observational data as yet seems to locate the direction of C in = that=20 plane. On the other hand Orion is in that plane, and is = prominently=20 mentioned in Scripture (Job 9:9;38:31, Amos 5:8). As a working = hypothesis=20 I suggest that C may lie a few million light years beyond Orion. = One=20 density used in the preceding calculations is higher than current=20 estimates but, as previously noted Ellis (52) has suggested there = may be a=20 large amount of undetected mass/energy which may raise the value = to more=20 than 10^-24 g/cm³. On this basis the higher = density=20 estimate is not unreasonable. In the RSS model the value of the = density=20 cannot much exceed 10^-26 g/cm³ or else the = angular=20 velocity will increase to the point where differential motions of = distant=20 galaxies would be observed.

The RSS Model and Olber's Paradox

We briefly digress to note that Olber's Paradox = is=20 resolved if the universe is structured according to the RSS model = because=20 the finite number of galaxies within a sphere of radius R=92 will = only=20 produce a finite light flux at the Milky Way. Even if there is = luminous=20 matter beyond R', the density is assumed to diminish so rapidly = that the=20 light flux received at the Milky Way from beyond R' will also be=20 finite.

The RSS Model and Varshni's Analysis of Quasar=20 Redshifts

In the context of the present proposal for the = structure=20 of the universe it is most appropriate to refer to Varshni's (53)=20 investigation of the redshift distribution of 384 quasars. From a=20 probability analysis of those 384 quasars he found an astounding = 57 sets=20 of redshift coincidences within small redshift intervals. Varshni=20 calculates the probability of chance coincidence of these groups = to be=20 about 10^-85. He concludes that if quasar redshifts = are real=20 (he thinks they are not) and are of cosmological origin) i.e., = distance=20 related, then the only logical deduction from the data is, in = his own=20 words, as follows:

The Earth is indeed the center of the Universe. = The=20 arrangement of quasars on certain spherical shells is only with = respect to=20 the Earth. These shells would disappear if viewed from another = galaxy or a=20 quasar. This means that the cosmological principle will have to = go. Also,=20 it implies that a coordinate system fixed to the Earth will be a = preferred=20 frame of reference in the Universe. Consequently, both the Special = and the=20 General Theory of Relativity must be abandoned for cosmological=20 purposes.

These deductions are amazingly similar to the = deductions=20 of the RSS model except that, first, the earth, or MW, is only=20 astronomically close to rather than being exactly at the Center, = and,=20 second, the absolute reference frame is defined by the CMR and not = the=20 position of the earth. And from earlier discussions in this = article, it=20 should now be clear that the special and the general theory of = relativity=20 are not credible theories in the RSS model. In fact, as shown = below, if=20 anything it now appears that the results of one of the most = celebrated=20 experiments in the history of physics contradict the basic = premises of=20 both special and general relativity so directly that, to me at = least, it=20 seems these theories are no longer tenable. As noted earlier, = however,=20 just because special and general relativity are shown to be = untenable does=20 not invalidate all the mathematical results obtained by these = theories. It=20 suggests rather that there must exist an absolute space-time = framework=20 which would encompass all the results of relativity which do = accord with=20 experiment, but different results where relativity theory makes = incorrect=20 predictions. Several investigations pertaining to this alternative = framework have already been cited (42-44). In addition we should = also=20 mention Clube's (54) work and his exchanges with others (55) on=20 neo-Lorentzian relativity.

The RSS Model, the CMR, and the Theory of=20 Relativity

Clube's (54) explanation for the CMR is = undergirded by=20 the assumption of a non-relativistic Lorentz invariant material = vacuum. It=20 is intriguing to consider that the CMR may be the result of = emissions from=20 a cold material vacuum. On a related matter, Clube cites other = work (56)=20 as evidence that observations are not at all inconsistent with an=20 essentially Euclidean infinite cosmos. Certainly these ideas = appear easily=20 reconcilable with the RSS model since they assume the existence of = an=20 absolute reference frame. However, the details of Clube's theory = have yet=20 to be worked out so it is premature to make any claims until = further work=20 is done. Of course there is also the possibility that the CMR may = be a=20 part of the 'light' that was created in Gen. 1:3. Interestingly, = Weisskopf=20 (45) alludes to that very possibility in the closing paragraph of = his=20 recent article:

Indeed, the Judeo-Christian tradition describes = the=20 beginning of the world in a way that is surprisingly similar to = the=20 scientific model. Previously, it seemed scientifically unsound to = have=20 light created before the sun. The present scientific view does = indeed=20 assume the early universe to be filled with various kinds of = radiation=20 long before the sun was created. The Bible says about the = beginning: "And=20 God said, 'Let there be light'; and there was light. And God saw = the=20 light, that it was good."

Irrespective of how it originated, the most = important=20 fact about the CMR is that it represents unequivocal evidence of = an=20 absolute reference frame in the universe, a very necessary = condition in=20 the RSS model, but an inconsistent condition for the relativistic=20 foundations of the Big Bang model. To explicitly show exactly how = this=20 inconsistency arises, it is most helpful to include another quote = from=20 Weisskopf's recent article:

It is remarkable that we now are justified in = talking=20 about an absolute motion, and that we can measure it. The great = dream of=20 Michelson and Morley is realized. They wanted to measure the = absolute=20 motion of the earth by measuring the velocity of light in = different=20 directions. According to Einstein, however, this velocity is = always the=20 same. But the 3K radiation represents a fixed system of = coordinates. It=20 makes sense to say that an observer is at rest in an absolute = sense when=20 the 3K radiation appears to have the same frequencies in all = directions.=20 Nature has provided an absolute frame of reference. The deeper=20 significance of this concept is not yet clear.

With all due respect to my eminent colleague I = suggest=20 the meaning of this fact is not obscure at all. I suggest the = evidence=20 (the CMR) which has received worldwide acclaim as confirmation of = the Big=20 Bang is in reality its death knell for, ironically, it is now = clear that=20 the existence of the CMR essentially falsifies the fundamental = postulates=20 of the theory of relativity. The logic is quite straightforward. = Referring=20 to the last quotation by Weisskopf, we note he mentions the famed=20 Michelson-Morley experiment, which achieved only a null result. =

Lorentz's efforts to explain this null result = on the=20 basis of an absolute reference frame were supposedly untenable. = The real=20 explanation, according to almost every physics textbook written in = the=20 past 60 years, was given by the theory of relativity, namely that: = Given the null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment, if = the=20 fundamental principles of relativity are true, then there is no = absolute=20 reference frame. But the CMR is an absolute reference frame, = so the=20 original relativistic deductions about the Michelson-Morley = experiment are=20 in error. More precisely, since logic requires the contrapositive = of a=20 statement to be equivalent to the statement itself, the preceding = "if=20 relativity is true, then no absolute reference frame" statement = must be=20 equivalent to "if an absolute reference frame exists, then the = fundamental=20 principles of relativity are untrue." In simpler terms the = theory of=20 relativity has been falsified because a major prediction of the = theory is=20 now known to be contradicted by an unambiguous experimental = result.=20 Without relativity theory there is no Big Bang, no Hubble relation = for the=20 redshift, and no explanation for the CMR in an evolutionary = cosmological=20 model.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, REFLECTIONS, AND = CONCLUSIONS

Special thanks goes to Drs. Frank Awbrey and = Bill=20 Thwaites, Biology Department, San Diego State University, for = extending to=20 me the opportunity of participating in this symposium, and for = their=20 understanding and patience during the revision of this = contribution.=20 Special thanks also to Dr. Alan Leviton, Director, Pacific = Division of the=20 AAAS, who very kindly undertook the task of translating my = computer disks=20 into a finished manuscript.

Several years ago the American Physical Society = sent its=20 members a copy of the National Academy of Sciences resolution of = April=20 1976, "An Affirmation of Freedom of Inquiry and Expression," which = reads=20 in part ". . .That the search for knowledge and understanding of = the=20 physical universe and of the living things that inhabit it should = be=20 conducted under conditions of intellectual freedom, without = religious=20 political or ideological restrictions. . . . That freedom of = inquiry and=20 dissemination of ideas require that those so engaged be free to = search=20 where their inquiry leads. . . without political censorship and = without=20 fear of retribution in consequence of unpopularity of their = conclusions.=20 Those who challenge existing theory must be protected from = retaliatory=20 reactions."

In recent years the lofty aim of that = resolution has not=20 been realized as I have tried to pursue my research. In my opinion = some of=20 my more influential colleagues have found it easier to support = this NAS=20 resolution for foreign dissident scientists than for an American = scientist=20 who dissents from evolution. In fact I read in a recent issue of = Science=20 (57) that the NAS itself has recently stepped up its anti-creation = campaign by the widespread distribution of a publication which = claims that=20 creationism is not science. I will present the opposite viewpoint = in my=20 forthcoming book (58) while also relating some details concerning = my=20 difficulties in pursuing research in this somewhat controversial = field.=20 The impact of aforementioned NAS resolution on my research efforts = receives special attention.

In closing I wish to express my gratitude to = those of my=20 evolutionary colleagues who on so many occasions have assisted me, = and on=20 other occasions have collaborated with me in my research. Of one = thing I=20 am certain: Only in America could my research over the past two = decades=20 have been accomplished. I close by expressing gratitude to my = Creator for=20 allowing me the privilege of being an American. I submit this = article to=20 the scientific community not as an antagonist who purports to have = the=20 last word on the subject, but as a colleague who, in the spirit of = free=20 scientific inquiry, genuinely seeks a vigorous, critical response = to the=20 evidence presented herein. Perhaps a future "Evolutionists = Confront=20 Creationists" AAAS symposium would be the ideal forum for this = exchange to=20 occur.

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