From: Subject: =?iso-8859-1?Q?Brand=2C_L._R._-?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?--_Homologies?= Date: Sun, 29 Feb 2004 00:01:58 -0500 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0133_01C3FE57.3FA9D350"; type="text/html" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V5.00.3314.1001 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0133_01C3FE57.3FA9D350 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: =?iso-8859-1?B?aHR0cDovL3d3dy5ncmk=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?c2RhLm9yZy9vcmlnaW4=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?cy8wMzEwOS5odG0=?= Brand, L. R. --- Homologies


HOMOLOGIES

Leonard R. Brand
Biology Department
Loma = Linda=20 University

Origins 3(2):109-111 (1976).
    Related = page =BE=20 | REACTION = |

    There is a wide variety of animals, representing = many=20 different types of structures, from one-celled protozoa to the most = complex=20 animal =BE man. There are animals with skeletons inside their bodies and = some with=20 skeletons on the outside. Some lay eggs and some bear live young; some = are=20 cold-blooded and some are warm-blooded. Within each group there are many = species, each a little different from the others. For example, there are = about=20 1200 species of rats and mice in the entire world. Some of those species = are so=20 similar that it is difficult to tell them apart, but each one is = different in=20 some way, and each species does not normally interbreed with any of the = other=20 species. Zoologists arrange these animals in a standard classification = scheme,=20 beginning with the simplest one-celled organisms and ending with man. In = this=20 classification system each type of organism is placed next to those that = are=20 most similar to it.
    The study of homologies plays = an=20 important part in determining which organisms should be classified close = together. When two animals have body parts that are alike in their basic = anatomy=20 and develop along the same growth pathways when the animals are embryos, = these=20 similar body parts are referred to as homologous parts. Consider the = arrangement=20 of the bones in the forelimb of a man, a seal, a bat and a dog. Humans = have=20 hands that are very agile for manipulating objects; seals' flippers are = useful=20 only for swimming; bats have wings for flying, and dogs' feet are built = for fast=20 running. They all look very different, yet they have the same basic = arrangement=20 of bones. Only the proportions of the individual bones and the type of = fleshy=20 covering are different. A bat's wing bears little resemblance to a human = hand,=20 and yet the wing membrane is supported by a skeleton that is equivalent = to our=20 second, third, fourth and fifth fingers, but with very elongated finger = bones.=20 The creation theory proposes that the vertebrate limb was designed to be = an=20 efficient and adaptable structure, and then the same basic design was = used for=20 all of the vertebrates. Only minor modifications, mainly in proportions = and in=20 the type of fleshy covering, were needed to adapt this skeleton to the = needs of=20 each animal. These different types of limbs are homologous, indicating = that=20 seals, bats, dogs and men should be classified in the same group of=20 animals.
    However, according to the evolution = theory, the=20 fact that these animals all have homologous limbs is considered to be = evidence=20 that they have all evolved from common ancestors. It is often believed = that they=20 would not have homologous limbs unless they had inherited them from = common=20 ancestors. However, these homologies are also what we would expect to = see if the=20 vertebrates had all been designed and created according to a common = vertebrate=20 body plan. Consequently, homologies in anatomy are not really evidence = for or=20 against evolution.
    There are also homologies in=20 physiology, biochemistry and embryology. The principles are the same in = these=20 fields as for homologies in anatomy. Similarities in physiology or = similar=20 developmental pathways in embryos are often considered to be evidence of = evolution from a common ancestor, but they are also what we would expect = to see=20 if all life was created by a single intelligent Designer. Also in the=20 biochemical structure and functions of cells, there are many features = that are=20 virtually the same through the animal and plant kingdoms. For example, = all=20 living things, both plants and animals (excluding some viruses), have=20 chromosomes containing DNA. This DNA contains the genetic code that = determines=20 the entire structure and physiology of the organism. The basic details = of this=20 mechanism are the same in all living things. This is considered by some = to be=20 evidence that all living things evolved from a common ancestor, but we = can also=20 consider it to be evidence that all living things were designed by one=20 intelligent Designer who used the same exquisitely designed genetic = mechanism=20 for all.
    The details of the evolution theory of = the=20 history of life are based largely on these homologies between organisms. = All=20 plants and animals are arranged in the classification system with the = simplest=20 ones first, and then more and more complex organisms. Those who accept = the=20 evolution theory believe that this arrangement is the order in which the = animals=20 evolved, from simple to complex. Organisms with the most similarities, = or=20 homologies, are placed closest together in the classification system. = From this=20 classification scheme, phylogenetic trees are constructed. Phylogenetic = trees=20 are diagrams representing the presumed evolutionary pathways along which = organisms have evolved.
    If we would compare many = different=20 types of wheeled vehicles, we would find that they also have many = homologous=20 parts and that they can be arranged in a sequence based on these = homologies. For=20 example, they all use the principle of the wheel. Most of them also use = levers=20 in some way, and several use energy produced by the internal combustion = of fuel.=20 Using this information, we can construct a "phylogenetic tree" by = following the=20 same principles used in making an animal or plant evolutionary tree. Of = course=20 no one would say that this means that cars evolved from two-wheeled = carts. The=20 different vehicles have homologous parts because they were all designed = to=20 operate under the same natural laws. Certain design concepts are used in = several=20 different vehicles and adapted to meet the different functional = requirements of=20 each one. They can be arranged in a sequence of simple to complex = because they=20 all are designed to serve different functions, and thus their structural = requirements are quite different. The result is a wide diversity of = types,=20 differing in structural complexity, and each well suited to perform its = unique=20 function.
    When we apply these same principles to = living=20 things, we can develop an interpretation that is consistent with both = the=20 biological data and the concept of creation. Hence one of the most = commonly used=20 arguments for evolution utilizes data that are not especially supportive = of the=20 theory, but fit equally well the concept of creation.

=A9 1976

All contents copyright Geoscience = Research=20 Institute. All rights reserved.
Send comments and questions to webmaster@grisda.org=20

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